Cognitive Training

This editorial explores brain aging during midlife and how interventions can prevent neurodegeneration later in life. It includes eight studies (both human and rodent) that investigate cognitive decline, the benefits of exercise, and molecular mechanisms underlying memory loss. Notably, exercise enhances cognitive function in both healthy individuals and those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), with virtual reality (VR) showing promise for Alzheimer's patients. The editorial highlights gaps in research, such as the lack of diverse study populations, and emphasizes the need for further exploration of midlife risk factors and their long-term effects.

This large-scale population study examined the long-term effects of mobile phone and computer game use on brain structure and the risk of neurodegenerative diseases. Using data from the UK Biobank, researchers analyzed over 270,000 participants over nearly 14 years. The findings suggest that long-term mobile phone use is linked to a reduced risk of dementia, Alzheimer’s, vascular dementia, and Parkinson’s disease. Neuroimaging data also indicated structural brain improvements in frequent users. However, no additional benefit was seen with excessive weekly phone use. These results challenge concerns about digital device exposure and suggest potential cognitive benefits.

This study developed "Smart Brain," an ICT-based cognitive training app for elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia. Using a systematic review and user needs analysis, the app combines cognitive games, health tracking, emotional support, and social engagement to address cognitive decline comprehensively. Usability testing demonstrated its functionality and engagement for users and caregivers. The app's design supports daily life skills and social interaction, promoting cognitive health and quality of life. Its potential lies in early intervention to delay dementia progression while fostering community-based care.

This research explored how to predict mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in older adults with chronic pain using machine learning models. It identified key risk factors like pain level, age, depression, and sleep quality. The most accurate model, XGBoost, achieved a 92.5% prediction accuracy and highlighted how these factors influence cognitive health. By enabling early detection of MCI, this study equips nurses with tools to personalize care and mitigate progression to dementia. The research emphasizes the importance of integrating advanced analytics into healthcare to address aging-related challenges and improve cognitive performance in vulnerable populations.

This study explored how lifestyle behaviors affect cognitive health over ten years in older adults in China. Using data from 5,381 individuals aged 65 and older, researchers grouped participants into three lifestyle profiles: active engagement, moderate engagement, and negative engagement. Those in the active group, characterized by healthy diets, regular physical and cognitive activities, and good sleep quality, showed the lowest risk of cognitive decline and slower rates of memory loss. This research underscores that even partial adoption of healthier lifestyles can meaningfully reduce cognitive impairment risks, emphasizing preventive actions for brain health.

The Harvard Health article "What's Your Brain Care Score?" introduces the McCance Brain Care Score, a 21-point assessment tool developed to help individuals identify actionable steps to reduce the risks of stroke, dementia, and depression. The score evaluates 12 modifiable factors across three domains: physical health (blood pressure, blood sugar, cholesterol, body mass index), lifestyle choices (nutrition, alcohol intake, smoking, aerobic activities, sleep), and social-emotional health (stress-management, social relationships, meaning in life). Each factor is assigned a point value, with higher total scores indicating better brain care. Significantly, a study involving nearly 400,000 adults aged 40 to 69 found that higher Brain Care Scores correlated with lower risks of developing stroke and dementia over a 12.5-year follow-up period. For instance, among individuals in their 60s, a five-point increase in the score was linked to a 33% reduction in stroke risk. These findings suggest that addressing modifiable factors can substantially enhance brain health and cognitive performance.To improve brain health, individuals are encouraged to monitor and manage cardiovascular health metrics, adopt a balanced diet, engage in regular physical activity, ensure sufficient sleep, foster strong social connections, and effectively manage stress. Given Harvard Health's reputable standing and the robust evidence supporting the McCance Brain Care Score, these recommendations are credible and practical for those seeking to enhance brain health and reduce the risk of neurological conditions.

This study investigated how physical activity and video gaming influence mental health and cognitive performance in over 1,000 participants. Regular exercise improved mental health, reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety, but did not enhance cognitive abilities like memory or reasoning. In contrast, frequent video gaming significantly boosted cognitive performance, particularly reasoning and short-term memory, but had no impact on mental health. The findings suggest that exercise and video gaming benefit different aspects of brain health and can complement one another.

The Harvard Health article "Train Your Brain" discusses the concept of brain plasticity—the brain's ability to learn and grow with age—and emphasizes the importance of engaging in new and challenging activities to maintain and enhance cognitive functions. Activities such as learning a musical instrument, acquiring a new language, or participating in creative arts can improve memory recall, problem-solving skills, concentration, and attention to detail. The article suggests selecting a new activity, enrolling in classes for structured learning, and dedicating consistent practice time to stimulate the brain effectively. Engaging in mentally stimulating activities is significant for brain health and cognitive performance, as it helps build cognitive reserve and may delay age-related cognitive decline. The article recommends choosing activities that are challenging, complex, and require regular practice to maximize brain training benefits. Given Harvard Health's reputable standing and the evidence supporting lifelong learning for cognitive health, these recommendations are credible and practical for individuals seeking to enhance brain function.

This study assessed the impact of using modern board games in classrooms on children's cognitive and academic development. In a randomized trial with 522 primary school students, those who played board games in class showed improved executive functions, such as working memory, and academic skills, particularly in reading and math, compared to peers in traditional lessons. The findings suggest that incorporating structured game-based learning can effectively enhance critical thinking, problem-solving, and educational outcomes in young learners.

This randomized controlled trial assessed how board games affect balance, cognition, and fall risk in community-dwelling older adults. Over eight weeks, participants who played games like Ludo, Snakes and Ladders, and Chess improved their cognitive function (measured by MMSE), balance (BBS), and mobility (DGI), while reducing fall risk. The study highlights board games as a simple and effective way to enhance physical and cognitive health in older adults, supporting safer mobility and functional independence.

This perspective article highlights the critical link between childhood literacy and lifelong physical, mental, and social-emotional health. Research shows that children exposed to books and reading early in life achieve better health outcomes, including lower risks of chronic illnesses, improved mental health, and enhanced empathy. Programs like Reach Out and Read demonstrate how pediatric healthcare settings can promote literacy, significantly boosting children’s cognitive development and school readiness. Reading interventions tailored for low-income families show significant success, underlining the need for a healthcare-education partnership to address declining literacy rates and their health consequences.

This study explored the relationship between musical practice and cognitive health in older adults using data from the UK-based PROTECT cohort. It analyzed self-reported musical experiences (playing instruments, singing, and listening to music) and their impact on cognitive functions like working memory and executive function. Playing instruments, especially the keyboard and brass instruments, correlated with better memory and reasoning abilities. Singing also improved executive function. These findings support the idea that lifelong musical engagement builds cognitive reserve, potentially reducing the risk of cognitive decline in aging.

This study investigated how proficiency in various video game genres impacts cognitive functions and empathy in early adulthood. Using tests for memory, reaction time, and empathy, the findings showed that different genres yield unique cognitive benefits. For example, role-playing games (RPGs) improved verbal working memory and visuospatial memory but were linked to reduced empathy. Puzzle games enhanced visuospatial working memory, and action games boosted attentional speed and hand-eye coordination. The results indicate that video games can target specific cognitive abilities, offering potential applications in training and rehabilitation. However, the relationship between gaming and empathy remains complex and warrants further study.

This study explores how learning a second language (L2) in adulthood affects brain structure, focusing on white matter changes. Researchers followed Arabic speakers learning German intensively for six months. They observed significant increases in white matter connectivity within the brain's language regions, especially in the second half of the study. Interestingly, the connectivity between the two brain hemispheres decreased, suggesting the brain optimizes its network for L2 learning by reducing reliance on cross-hemisphere communication. These structural changes correlated with improvements in language proficiency, highlighting the brain's adaptability and the cognitive benefits of language acquisition.

This study compared the cognitive performance of action video game players (AVGPs) and non-gamers (NGs) after a cognitively fatiguing task (45-minute Stroop test) or a control condition (resting). AVGPs showed superior spatial working memory and attention on complex tasks but no advantage on simple attention tasks. Cognitive fatigue did not affect AVGPs differently from NGs, and both groups improved task-switching performance after the fatigue intervention. The findings suggest that while AVGPs may excel in demanding cognitive environments, they are not uniquely resistant to cognitive fatigue. This highlights how gaming can enhance specific cognitive skills but may not confer broader resilience.

This cohort study validated the Brain Care Score (BCS), a 21-point tool assessing physical, lifestyle, and social factors to predict dementia and stroke risk. Using data from nearly 400,000 UK Biobank participants, higher BCS scores were significantly associated with reduced dementia and stroke risks, especially in younger individuals. A 5-point BCS increase correlated with 14% and 40% lower dementia and stroke risks, respectively. These findings suggest practical applications for BCS in guiding preventive brain health strategies.

This study examined how a dyadic cooking intervention could improve well-being and cooking competence in older adults with subjective cognitive decline (SCD) and their caregivers. Over five weeks, participants attended cooking classes that used step-by-step, accessible methods. Results showed significant improvements in well-being for both older adults and caregivers, as well as increased cooking skills for the older adults. These findings highlight how shared, meaningful activities can enhance mental and emotional health in aging populations.

This systematic review explored the cognitive benefits of digital foreign language learning. The findings showed that learning a language using digital tools can improve problem-solving, memory, and multitasking. Activities engaging multiple senses, such as combining visual and tactile tasks, proved particularly effective. However, printed materials often outperformed digital resources for long-term vocabulary retention. Approaches like digital games and flipped classrooms fostered positive emotions and improved cognitive engagement, benefiting vocabulary and writing skills.

This study investigated the benefits of learning a second language, focusing on how it might enhance cognitive functions like attention and task management. Using tests like the Simon and Flanker tasks, researchers found that bilingual students with higher proficiency in their second language performed better in executive function tasks, such as ignoring distractions and monitoring their environment. The findings support the idea that bilingualism and second language learning strengthen the brain's ability to handle complex tasks, though the degree of benefit varies based on individual experiences with the second language.

This research explored whether playing a musical instrument can impact cognitive abilities in later life. Using data from 420 individuals aged 70 to 82, the study found that those with more experience playing musical instruments, particularly in early life, performed better in tasks requiring processing speed and visuospatial ability. However, the rate of cognitive decline was similar regardless of musical experience. These findings suggest that benefits from musical training may reflect "preserved differentiation," where earlier cognitive advantages persist into older age, rather than slowing age-related decline.

This meta-analysis investigated the effects of action video games (AVGs) on cognitive skills through 105 cross-sectional studies and 28 intervention studies. Results showed that AVG players significantly outperformed non-players in areas like attention, perception, and spatial cognition (effect size g = 0.64). Intervention studies demonstrated a causal link between AVG training and cognitive improvements, though with smaller effects (g = 0.30). Findings suggest AVGs enhance targeted cognitive skills, but their benefits are specific to the tasks practiced, with limited evidence of broad transfer. The study highlights AVGs’ potential for cognitive-training but cautions against generalizing their effects without further research.

This study explored the cognitive benefits of a 10-week musical instrument training program for healthy older adults using the melodica. Participants practiced weekly in groups and at home, completing cognitive tests before and after the program. Results showed significant improvements in verbal working memory (phonological fluency) and reaction time during working memory tasks. However, improvements in other areas, like executive function and processing speed, were less pronounced, suggesting short-term training yields limited but specific cognitive benefits.

This study investigated the impact of foreign language learning on executive attention and cognitive functions in older adults (65–80 years old) through a randomized controlled trial. Participants took a 3-week intensive Spanish course. While overall cognitive improvements weren't significant, those with lower baseline cognitive performance showed gains in response inhibition, a key executive function. This suggests foreign language learning may especially benefit individuals more vulnerable to cognitive decline.

This paper reviews the impact of learning a second language at an early age, examining both its benefits and challenges. Early second-language acquisition enhances brain development, improving memory, attention, and creativity. Bilingual children often excel in academic performance and develop better social understanding due to enhanced perspective-taking. However, challenges include the risk of native language loss and added academic pressures, which can lead to reduced leisure time and discontinuation of second-language learning. The paper emphasizes the need for balancing bilingual education with native language preservation.

This literature review examines how working memory influences bilingual learning ability. Studies suggest that bilinguals often outperform monolinguals in tasks requiring working memory and executive control, as managing two languages enhances cognitive skills like attention and inhibition. Higher working memory capacity is linked to better second language acquisition, allowing bilinguals to store and process linguistic information more efficiently. However, bilinguals may face challenges like slower word recognition due to simultaneous activation of both language systems, which can temporarily impede performance.

This study analyzed how playing video and board games affects cognitive functions, focusing on 496 participants' playing habits and cognitive test results. Video game play positively impacted mental flexibility, planning, visual and verbal working memory, visuospatial processing, and fluid intelligence. Notably, benefits were linked to real-time decision-making and attention-switching demands in video games. In contrast, board games showed no significant cognitive benefits after accounting for education and age. The findings highlight the unique advantages of video games in enhancing certain cognitive abilities compared to board games.

The article "Why Should I Learn Music? It Can Be Good for Your Brain!" from Frontiers for Young Minds explores how learning to play a musical instrument engages multiple brain regions, enhancing cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and problem-solving skills. It discusses the concept of neuroplasticity, explaining that musical training can strengthen neural connections and even lead to structural brain changes. The article also highlights the social benefits of music, including improved communication skills and increased empathy, as well as the emotional advantages, such as better mood regulation and reduced stress levels. Engaging in musical activities can significantly benefit brain health and cognitive performance by promoting neuroplasticity and enhancing various cognitive domains. Incorporating music lessons or regular musical practice into one's routine may serve as an effective strategy for cognitive enhancement and emotional well-being. Given that the article is published in a reputable, peer-reviewed journal and presents evidence-based information, these recommendations are credible and align with current scientific understanding.

This study analyzed the relationship between video gaming and cognitive performance in 9- and 10-year-old children using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. It found small but statistically significant enhancements in response inhibition and working memory among children who played video games for at least 21 hours per week compared to non-gamers. Functional MRI scans showed differences in brain activity in regions related to attention and memory. However, video gamers also exhibited higher rates of attention problems, depression, and ADHD symptoms. These findings suggest gaming may modestly enhance certain cognitive functions but raise concerns about mental health impacts, requiring further longitudinal research.

This study investigated whether playing a musical instrument is linked to long-term changes in cognitive ability, using data from 366 participants of the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. Cognitive tests conducted at ages 11 and 70 revealed a small but significant positive association between musical training and cognitive improvement. Participants with more experience in musical training demonstrated slightly better cognitive changes over time. These results suggest a possible benefit of musical training on maintaining cognitive health across the lifespan, although the study cannot prove causation due to its observational nature. Socioeconomic status and education were also key factors influencing outcomes.

The article "No gain from brain training" discusses a large-scale study conducted by British researchers in collaboration with the BBC Lab UK website, which evaluated the effectiveness of computerized brain-training games. The study involved over 11,000 adults aged 18 to 60, who engaged in various online tasks designed to improve cognitive functions such as reasoning, memory, and problem-solving skills. Participants practiced these tasks for at least ten minutes a day, three times a week, over six weeks. While participants showed improvement in the specific tasks they practiced, the study found no evidence that these gains transferred to general cognitive abilities, such as memory, reasoning, or learning. The researchers concluded that practicing a broad range of cognitive tasks did not lead to overall improvements in cognitive function.This study holds significance for brain health and cognitive performance by challenging the efficacy of commercial brain-training programs that claim to enhance general cognitive abilities. The findings suggest that while individuals may become better at specific tasks through repetition, these improvements do not necessarily generalize to broader cognitive functions. Consequently, individuals seeking to maintain or improve brain health might consider alternative lifestyle changes with more substantial evidence supporting their effectiveness. Engaging in regular physical-exercise, maintaining a balanced diet, ensuring adequate sleep, and participating in intellectually stimulating activities (such as learning new skills or hobbies) have been associated with better cognitive health. Given that the study was published in Nature, a reputable peer-reviewed scientific journal, the findings are credible and warrant consideration. However, it's important to note that the study's participants were adults aged 18 to 60, and the results may not generalize to older adults or individuals with cognitive impairments, who are often the target audience for brain-training programs. Additionally, the training duration averaged only four hours over six weeks, which some experts argue may be insufficient to produce meaningful cognitive changes. Therefore, while the study provides valuable insights, further research is needed to explore the potential benefits of brain-training programs across different populations and with varying training intensities.

This systematic review examined how video games impact brain cognitive function, focusing on evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. Across 13 studies, video gaming was associated with enhanced brain activation in areas such as the prefrontal and parietal lobes, hippocampus, and insula. Action games improved visual attention and sensorimotor coordination, while strategy games enhanced memory and executive function. Comprehensive games combining multiple genres led to widespread brain activation and improved cognitive flexibility. While the evidence supports gaming’s ability to induce structural and functional brain changes, the review highlights variability in game effects, emphasizing the importance of genre-specific research for therapeutic applications.

The Cambridge University Press article explores the cognitive benefits of learning a new language, highlighting that bilingual individuals often exhibit enhanced executive functions, such as improved attention control, problem-solving skills, and multitasking abilities. It notes that language learning can lead to structural changes in the brain, including increased gray matter density in areas related to language processing and cognitive control. Additionally, the article suggests that bilingualism may contribute to cognitive reserve, potentially delaying the onset of dementia and other age-related cognitive declines. To promote brain health, the article recommends engaging in language learning at any age, as it stimulates mental activity and fosters cognitive resilience. These conclusions are supported by various studies indicating the positive impact of bilingualism on brain structure and function.

This study examines bilingualism as a factor contributing to cognitive reserve, which helps individuals cope with brain aging and neurodegeneration. It found that bilingual individuals often show symptoms of dementia later than monolinguals, despite having similar or greater brain atrophy. Bilingualism appears to enable the brain to adapt better to neuropathology, delaying cognitive decline and maintaining higher cognitive performance for longer. However, bilingualism does not prevent dementia, and once symptoms appear, cognitive decline may progress more rapidly in bilinguals.

The Harvard Health article evaluates the effectiveness of brain-training apps and computer games in enhancing cognitive function. It notes that while these programs are marketed to improve memory and mental sharpness, scientific evidence supporting their efficacy is limited. Some studies indicate potential benefits, such as improved processing speed and working memory, but these findings are often undermined by methodological flaws. Moreover, the Federal Trade Commission has penalized companies for unsubstantiated claims. The article suggests that traditional activities like reading, playing cards, or engaging in new hobbies may be more effective in maintaining cognitive health. Given the current evidence, incorporating diverse, mentally stimulating activities into daily life is recommended over relying solely on brain-training apps.

This study examined how learning to play a musical instrument in middle school influences cognitive abilities like working memory and fluid intelligence. The research compared 285 students in music-focused and standard curriculums and found that those in the music program performed better in audiovisual working memory and problem-solving tasks. The results highlight music training's potential in improving mental processes related to learning and self-regulation during a crucial developmental stage.

This study explored the lifelong effects of playing musical instruments on cognitive and brain health in older adults (60+). Comparing 70 musically active individuals with 70 non-musicians, it found that musical activity improved overall cognitive function, including working memory, executive function, language, and visuospatial skills. However, memory-specific benefits were not evident. While no significant differences in brain volume were found in key areas, musically active participants showed stronger links between brain volume and cognitive ability, suggesting enhanced brain resilience. These findings highlight music as a potentially protective activity against age-related cognitive decline.

This study compared 30 older musicians (mean age 70.8) with 30 non-musicians to examine the effects of lifelong musical training on brain health and aging. Musicians demonstrated enhanced verbal fluency, executive function, and finger tapping speed, which correlated with better task performance. MRI revealed larger cerebellar gray matter volumes and reduced age-related atrophy in musicians, suggesting protective effects on motor and cognitive systems. Enhanced connectivity between the cerebellum and hippocampus linked to better motor skills was also observed. These findings support musical training as a potential strategy for mitigating age-related cognitive decline.

A recent study examined whether playing a musical instrument can reduce the risk of dementia in older adults. By analyzing data from three long-term studies in the U.S. and Japan, researchers found that individuals who played instruments had a 36% lower risk of developing dementia compared to non-players. This suggests that engaging in musical activities may support brain health and cognitive function as we age

This randomized controlled trial evaluated the effects of piano training on cognitive, psychosocial, and physiological measures in adults aged 60–80 over 16 weeks. Compared to computer-assisted cognitive-training and a no-treatment control, piano training uniquely improved verbal fluency, working memory, processing speed, and self-efficacy. These gains were most pronounced in participants with lower baseline cognitive scores. While psychosocial benefits were notable, no significant changes were observed in physiological stress or immune markers. This suggests piano training is a promising method for enhancing cognitive resilience and well-being in aging adults.

This study evaluated the effects of sustained literacy engagement (leisure reading) on cognitive performance and sentence processing in adults aged 60–79. Participants were randomly assigned to an 8-week reading program or a puzzle-solving control group. The reading group showed significant improvements in working memory and episodic memory compared to the control. Reading also enhanced sentence comprehension, particularly in integrating conceptual information. These findings suggest that regular engagement with reading fosters cognitive plasticity in domains most susceptible to aging, highlighting its value for cognitive health in older adults.

This study examined the effects of musical training on working memory and verbal learning in older adults. Participants included musicians (instrumentalists or vocalists) and non-musicians. Results showed that musicians performed better on tasks requiring complex working memory and delayed verbal recall, suggesting that musical training enhances cognitive functions reliant on executive functioning. These benefits may stem from the demands of musical training, which engage memory, attention, and problem-solving, key areas often affected by aging.

This systematic review explores whether learning a second language (SLA) in later life enhances cognitive abilities and promotes neuroplasticity in older adults. Based on nine studies, results suggest SLA can improve executive functions such as attentional switching, inhibition, and working memory. Brain imaging also indicates increased connectivity in areas linked to cognitive control. However, findings are mixed, with improvements dependent on the intensity and duration of the language course. The research highlights SLA as a promising intervention to maintain cognitive health and resilience against age-related decline but calls for more robust studies to confirm these benefits.

This observational study analyzed data from over 12,000 older adults using cognitive mobile games (CMG) over 100 sessions. Results showed significant improvements in cognitive performance and processing speed across all age groups, though progress was slower in participants over 80 years old. CMGs targeted abilities like memory, attention, and problem-solving, demonstrating the potential of mobile apps to help older adults maintain cognitive health in real-life settings. However, the study lacked information on participants' health backgrounds, limiting broader conclusions.

This randomized clinical trial compared the effects of two smartphone-based interventions—language learning via Duolingo and brain training via BrainHQ—on executive function in adults aged 65–75 over 16 weeks. Both interventions improved executive function, such as working memory and response inhibition, compared to a control group. BrainHQ showed stronger benefits in processing speed, while Duolingo provided equivalent gains in accuracy-based tasks, like the Stroop test. Participants found language learning more enjoyable and adhered better to its schedule, suggesting its potential as a cognitive intervention with social and lifestyle benefits.

This paper examines how bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve, helping individuals resist cognitive decline despite aging or dementia-related brain changes. Bilinguals tend to delay the onset of dementia symptoms compared to monolinguals, even when their brains show more advanced pathology. This advantage likely stems from the constant mental exercise of managing two languages, enhancing executive functions like attention and task-switching. However, once dementia symptoms appear, bilinguals may experience a faster cognitive decline due to accumulated pathology.

The article examines the impact of probiotics and prebiotics on the gut-brain axis and their potential benefits for mental health. It discusses how these substances can influence gut microbiota composition, leading to reduced symptoms of depression, anxiety, Alzheimer's disease, and stress. The mechanisms include enhanced neurotransmitter production, reduced neuroinflammation, and improved gut barrier integrity. While animal studies and some human trials show promise, the evidence remains preliminary, and larger clinical trials are needed to confirm therapeutic effects. Incorporating probiotic-rich foods like yogurt and kefir, as well as prebiotic sources such as onions and bananas, may support mental health by balancing gut microbiota. However, given the current state of research, these should not replace standard treatments for mental health conditions.

This research explores how musical training affects the adult brain's structure and function through neuroplasticity, which is the brain's ability to adapt to new learning experiences. It discusses differences between musicians and non-musicians, emphasizing changes in regions responsible for motor control, auditory processing, and cognitive functions. The study highlights that both inherent predispositions and training contribute to these changes. Musical training enhances the brain's connectivity and efficiency, suggesting its potential role in cognitive enhancement and healthy aging.

The meta-analysis investigates how learning to play musical instruments influences cognitive abilities and academic performance in children and adolescents. Analyzing 34 studies with 5,998 participants, it found small but significant improvements in areas like memory, executive function, and academic outcomes (effect size g = 0.26). However, children self-selecting musical training already had slight cognitive advantages. The results suggest both innate talent and training shape benefits. While promising, inconsistent study designs and short training durations limit the conclusions. The research highlights the cognitive and academic potential of sustained, structured musical training, suggesting a meaningful but modest role in development.

This study explored the effects of second language learning on brain structure and cognitive performance in older adults (65-75 years old). Participants engaged in an 11-week entry-level Italian course or a relaxation intervention. Brain scans before and after the interventions revealed no significant structural changes in language- and memory-related brain areas. However, hippocampal volume and associative memory ability were strong predictors of vocabulary learning success. The findings suggest that while second language learning may not cause detectable brain changes in the short term, certain cognitive traits support language acquisition in older age.

This systematic review examines the impact of video games on cognition and behavior in children and adolescents during the COVID-19 lockdown. It highlights potential benefits such as improved attention, executive function, and spatial skills from games designed to challenge these areas. However, concerns include excessive gaming leading to attention issues, addictive behaviors, and social withdrawal. The review emphasizes the importance of game type and duration, as prosocial and educational games promote positive outcomes, while violent games may increase aggression. The findings suggest video games can enhance cognitive abilities when balanced and carefully chosen but underline the need for adult supervision and limits to prevent negative effects.

This literature review analyzed 27 studies on video games and their impact on cognitive skills and decision-making. Findings showed that games improve abilities like perception, attentional control, and decision-making, varying by genre. Real-time strategy (RTS) games enhance cognitive flexibility, while first-person shooters (FPS) improve reaction times and task-switching efficiency. Simulation games also aid decision-making in fields like medicine. High school and undergraduate students who played games performed better on cognitive tasks compared to non-gamers. These results suggest video games can train specific mental skills effectively, though the transfer to broader applications remains unclear, warranting further research.

This study examined how musical training influences attention and working memory in children aged 10-13 using fMRI. Musically trained children performed better in tasks requiring selective and divided attention, especially in remembering auditory stimuli, compared to non-trained peers. Enhanced activation was observed in brain regions like the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and thalamus, which are critical for attentional control and memory. Training duration correlated with higher activity in areas supporting auditory processing. These findings suggest musical training can enhance cognitive control and memory functions in developing brains.

The Harvard Health article "Why is music good for the brain?" discusses how engaging with music can enhance well-being, learning, cognitive function, and happiness. A survey by AARP found that individuals who actively engage with music report higher mental well-being and slightly lower levels of anxiety and depression. Attending musical performances and early exposure to music were associated with better self-reported brain health and learning abilities. The article notes that music activates extensive brain networks, including areas responsible for emotion, memory, and motor functions. This widespread activation may explain music's positive impact on mood and cognitive performance. Incorporating music into daily life—such as listening to favorite songs, attending performances, or learning to play an instrument—can be a practical lifestyle change to support brain health. While the survey's findings are based on self-reported data and show correlations rather than causation, the evidence suggests that musical engagement is beneficial. Given Harvard Health's reputable standing and the supporting research, these recommendations are credible and actionable for enhancing cognitive function and overall well-being.

This study investigated whether bilingualism provides cognitive advantages, specifically in executive function, by analyzing data from 11,000 individuals using 12 standardized cognitive tests. The research found no significant evidence that bilinguals outperform monolinguals in tasks like attention, memory, and problem-solving when controlling for factors like age, education, and socioeconomic status. While bilingualism has clear social and linguistic benefits, its impact on general cognitive abilities appears negligible, challenging past claims of significant cognitive advantages for bilinguals.

This review explores the impact of commercial video games on cognitive functions, identifying six key areas of enhancement: attention, working memory, visuospatial skills, probabilistic learning, problem-solving, and language acquisition. Action video games (AVGs) particularly improve selective attention and visual memory, while strategy and role-playing games foster problem-solving and executive skills. However, cognitive improvements are often specific to trained tasks, with limited generalization. Factors such as age and gaming experience influence outcomes, emphasizing the need for personalized approaches. While commercial games show promise as cognitive-training tools, further research is required to confirm long-term and transferable benefits.

This study explored how string instrument training affects cognitive and motor development in primary school children. Over two years, children in the intervention group received focused training in string instruments within their regular curriculum, while the control group engaged in general music sensitization activities. The findings showed significant improvements in the intervention group's working memory, attention, cognitive flexibility, processing speed, abstract reasoning, and sensorimotor skills. This suggests that learning a musical instrument in a group setting enhances key cognitive and motor abilities, better preparing children for secondary education and daily life challenges.

This randomized controlled trial examined the effects of a 16-week musical instrument training program on cognitive and neural efficiency in older adults with no prior musical experience. Participants trained on a keyboard harmonica and demonstrated significant improvement in verbal memory compared to controls. Brain imaging showed reduced activation in key regions during working memory tasks, suggesting enhanced neural efficiency. Functional connectivity changes also correlated with memory gains. The study highlights music training as a potential method for supporting cognitive health and neural plasticity in aging populations.

This 14-year longitudinal study examined how reading activity influences cognitive decline in older Taiwanese adults. Among 1,962 participants aged 64+, those who read at least once a week were significantly less likely to experience cognitive decline compared to infrequent readers. This protective effect persisted across educational levels, with less-educated participants benefiting the most. Reading's positive impact was independent of other factors like age, education, and physical health. The study suggests that engaging in regular reading can help preserve cognitive function and delay decline, making it a valuable and accessible strategy for healthy aging.

This meta-analysis assessed the effects of commercial computerized cognitive games (ccCGs) on cognitive functions in adults over 60 without cognitive impairments. Data from 16 randomized controlled trials with 1,543 participants showed significant improvements in processing speed, working memory, executive function, and verbal memory. However, there were no significant gains in attention or visuospatial abilities. The findings support the use of ccCGs to enhance specific cognitive skills in older adults, but benefits are generally limited to trained domains, and evidence of long-term effects remains unclear.

This randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigates how one year of musical training, specifically piano practice, affects cognitive abilities and brain plasticity in healthy elderly adults aged 64–78. The study compares two groups: a piano training group and an active control group engaging in music listening and history. Participants undergo neuroimaging, cognitive testing, and blood sampling at multiple intervals. Expected benefits include improved working memory, executive function, and manual dexterity, alongside structural and functional brain plasticity in areas like the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. The findings aim to inform interventions for healthy aging and cognitive decline prevention.

This systematic review explores how video gaming impacts brain structure and function, particularly its role in neuroplasticity. Focusing on MRI-based intervention studies with healthy participants, it found that video games enhance cognitive areas such as memory, problem-solving, and visual-spatial processing by increasing grey matter in regions like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Different genres offer varied benefits, with strategy and 3D adventure games showing the most pronounced effects. The findings highlight video gaming as a potential tool for cognitive improvement across age groups, demonstrating its significance in promoting brain adaptability and function.

This large-scale study examined the effectiveness of commercial brain training programs, analyzing data from over 60,000 participants. Results showed that long-term brain training (over a year) led to small improvements in working memory and verbal ability but had negligible effects on reasoning skills or real-world functions like attention and employment. Other cognitive activities, such as puzzles and games, demonstrated stronger benefits. The study highlights that while brain training can improve specific skills, its broader claims are overstated.

The British Academy article examines how learning a new language can enhance cognitive abilities, including improved attention, mental alertness, and creativity in one's native language. It also highlights the positive impact on academic performance across various subjects. However, the relationship between language learning and traits like empathy or a global mindset is complex and requires further research. To boost brain health, incorporating language learning into your routine can promote mental flexibility and potentially enhance performance in other academic areas. The British Academy's findings support these benefits, though individual experiences may vary. Engaging in regular language study through classes, apps, or conversational practice can lead to improved cognitive performance over time.

This scoping review investigated whether playing chess can protect against dementia or improve cognitive function in diagnosed individuals. While evidence supports chess as a preventive activity for reducing dementia risk, its benefits for those already diagnosed are less clear. Chess stimulates cognitive functions like memory, problem-solving, and spatial reasoning, which may enhance cognitive reserve and delay cognitive decline. However, the findings highlight the need for more robust studies to confirm its therapeutic potential.

This review critically examines the effects of video gaming on cognition, brain structure, and function, highlighting both potential benefits and methodological challenges in existing research. It finds that video gaming can enhance visuospatial cognition and attention, but evidence for improvements in memory, executive function, or general cognition is inconsistent. Brain imaging studies suggest changes in regions like the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and parietal areas, but results vary widely due to differences in game genres and study designs. The review emphasizes the need for standardized research protocols and theoretical frameworks to better understand the mechanisms behind gaming’s cognitive impacts and guide practical applications, such as therapeutic use.

This study explored how learning a second language can positively impact the brain health of older adults. Over four months, participants underwent language training, which significantly improved global cognition, memory, attention, and executive function. Brain imaging revealed enhanced connectivity in regions linked to language processing and executive control, showcasing increased brain plasticity. These findings suggest that even in later life, the brain remains adaptable and can be strengthened through cognitive challenges like language learning, potentially delaying age-related cognitive decline and improving overall mental function.

This study investigated the effects of an 8-week second language (L2) learning program on brain plasticity, cognitive abilities, and quality of life in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) and healthy controls. Using brain imaging, researchers found increased gray matter volume in regions like the hippocampus and putamen in MS participants, areas linked to memory and learning. L2 learning also improved language proficiency and mental health. These findings suggest that L2 training can boost brain health, even in those with neurological conditions.

This systematic review analyzed 27 studies on the use of board games for educational, cognitive, and therapeutic purposes. Results showed board games improve learning, cognitive functions like memory and reasoning, and social interactions. They were also effective for specific conditions, such as reducing ADHD symptoms and enhancing physical activity. While these findings highlight board games as tools for mental and social enrichment, the limited number of rigorous studies underscores the need for further research into their broader clinical applications.

This research investigated the relationship between acquiring a second language (L2) through immersion and non-verbal cognitive abilities in children. Using a longitudinal design, the study assessed children's executive functions (like inhibitory control, attentional shifting, and working memory) before and after one year of immersion. Findings showed that better executive function skills predicted more success in L2 acquisition and improved native language skills (L1). The study highlights that L2 immersion may enhance cognitive functions, suggesting a reciprocal relationship between bilingualism and cognitive development.

This systematic review assessed 35 studies examining video games' effects on cognitive and emotional skills in healthy adults. Video games were shown to enhance cognitive abilities, including reaction times, task-switching, memory, and spatial reasoning. Puzzle and action games were particularly effective in improving task-switching and processing speed, while brain-training games enhanced memory and executive function. Emotional benefits included stress reduction and mood enhancement, especially with low-intensity games like puzzles or action games featuring stress-management components. The review highlights video games' therapeutic potential for maintaining cognitive and emotional health, with effects varying by game genre and individual player characteristics.

This review explores the effects of learning a foreign language on cognitive functions in older adults. It highlights that language learning enhances brain plasticity, executive functions like attention and memory, and overall mental flexibility. Studies show that even short-term language programs improve cognitive performance and social interaction. This activity is a non-pharmacological approach to maintaining brain health and may delay cognitive decline and dementia, making it a cost-effective public health strategy for aging populations.

This longitudinal observational study followed over 15,000 older adults in Hong Kong to investigate whether engaging in intellectual activities, such as reading or playing games, reduces the risk of developing dementia. Participants were free of dementia at the start and followed for six years. Results showed that those who participated in daily intellectual activities had a 29% lower risk of dementia, independent of other lifestyle and health factors. The findings suggest that intellectual engagement helps build cognitive reserve, which may protect against dementia in aging populations.

This study examined the impact of brain training games (BTGs), specifically Lumosity, on cognitive performance in healthy young adults. Participants who played BTGs for 15 minutes daily over three weeks showed significant improvements in attention, memory, and processing speed compared to a control group. The study also investigated the potential role of biological markers like BDNF and ApoE in cognitive changes, but no significant associations were found. These findings suggest short-term cognitive benefits from structured brain training, though long-term effects remain unclear.

The Scientific American article explores the hypothesis that cooking was a pivotal step in human evolution, particularly in the development of larger brains. It discusses how cooking increases the caloric availability of food, which may have provided the necessary energy to support the metabolic demands of a growing brain. The article also examines the anatomical changes in early humans, such as smaller teeth and jaws, which align with a diet of softer, cooked foods. While cooking likely played a significant role in human evolution, the article notes that other factors, such as increased meat consumption and social behaviors, also contributed. For modern brain health, the article suggests that a balanced diet rich in nutrients is essential, though it does not provide specific dietary recommendations. The information is based on current anthropological research, offering a credible perspective on the evolutionary importance of cooking.

This compilation of studies from Frontiers in Human Neuroscience explores how various interventions—physical-exercise, cognitive-training, video games, and combined approaches—enhance brain plasticity and cognitive function across the lifespan. physical-exercise boosts neuroplasticity and memory, while cognitive-training and video games improve specific cognitive skills like working memory. Combined approaches show promise for multitasking abilities and executive functions, especially in older adults. However, evidence is mixed regarding the long-term transferability of these benefits, emphasizing the importance of tailored, context-specific interventions. These findings underline the potential of lifestyle activities to support cognitive health, particularly in aging populations.

This study examined how solving jigsaw puzzles (JPs) affects cognitive abilities and brain health in adults aged 50 and older. Results showed that JP-solving strongly engages multiple cognitive processes, including visuospatial reasoning, memory, and flexibility. While long-term JP activity correlated with improved cognition, a 30-day intervention alone did not yield significant cognitive benefits compared to a control group. These findings suggest that consistent and long-term engagement in cognitively demanding activities like JP-solving may protect against cognitive decline.

This paper explores how plasticity, variability, and age interact in second-language (L2) acquisition and bilingualism. It highlights the role of critical periods for language learning, the decline of neuroplasticity with age, and how bilingualism influences cognitive processing and brain structure. The research underscores that age impacts language learning outcomes but not uniformly; factors like motivation, experience, and neurobiological differences play critical roles. Bilingualism fosters cognitive flexibility and may protect against cognitive decline by encouraging lifelong learning and brain adaptability.

This study evaluated the effects of learning multiple new skills simultaneously (e.g., Spanish, painting, and using technology) on cognitive development and functional independence in older adults. Over 15 weeks, participants in the intervention group showed significant improvements in working memory, cognitive control, and daily problem-solving abilities compared to a control group. These findings suggest that engaging in varied, challenging real-world learning activities can enhance brain function and help maintain independence during aging.

This systematic review examines how video gaming influences cognitive skills in non-problematic gamers, focusing on task-switching, attentional control, and time perception. It reveals that gaming improves the ability to alternate between tasks, maintain focus, and process rapid time intervals. Action games, in particular, enhance these skills by challenging players to manage multiple tasks simultaneously and react to dynamic environments. The studies reviewed also highlight that the benefits depend on the game genre and player engagement. While gaming improves specific cognitive functions, the transfer of these benefits to broader cognitive domains remains limited. The review underscores gaming's potential as a cognitive-training tool but calls for further research to clarify its mechanisms and applications.

This meta-analysis investigated whether video game training improves cognitive abilities, reviewing 359 studies. Results showed little to no evidence that playing video games enhances overall cognitive function beyond the specific skills practiced during gaming. Improvements were limited to trained tasks, with no "far transfer" of benefits to unrelated cognitive abilities. For example, spatial skills may improve with action games, but gains do not generalize to broader intelligence or memory tasks. These findings challenge the notion of video games as universal cognitive enhancers, emphasizing that their impact is highly task-specific. The study advocates for more rigorous research to explore the nuances of gaming and cognition.

This study examined the cognitive benefits of participating in music ensembles for older adult musicians. Using neuropsychological tests, researchers found that musicians in ensembles had better memory, verbal fluency, and visual memory compared to those who did not play in groups. These activities involve multitasking, coordination, and social interaction, which stimulate brain areas responsible for memory and executive function. The findings suggest ensemble participation supports mental sharpness and may reduce age-related cognitive decline.

This study explores how making sounds with a Tibetan singing bowl impacts brain plasticity and perception. Using magnetoencephalography (MEG), researchers tracked brain activity during listening and sound-making phases. Active sound-making led to immediate changes in auditory cortex responses, increased P2 wave amplitudes, and enhanced beta-band oscillations, indicating learning-related neuroplasticity. These effects, stronger than in a control group using button presses, highlight the brain's ability to integrate motor actions with sensory feedback. This rapid adaptation underscores the role of active engagement in fostering brain plasticity, potentially aiding in learning and rehabilitation contexts.

The Chess.com article examines whether chess instruction enhances cognitive skills, particularly in mathematics. It references a 2017 opinion piece by Sala and Gobet, which reviewed existing studies and found modest positive effects of chess on students' mathematical achievement and overall cognitive ability. However, the authors noted significant methodological issues, such as the lack of active control groups to rule out placebo effects. Additionally, a 2016 UK study involving nearly 2,000 pupils found no significant differences in mathematical achievement between those who received chess instruction and those who did not. Despite these findings, the article suggests that chess may still boost cognitive abilities like working memory, fluid intelligence, and concentration, though more rigorous research is needed. Given the current evidence, while chess can be a valuable educational tool, relying on it solely to enhance cognitive performance is not recommended.

This study assessed Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD), a potential psychiatric condition identified in DSM-5, using data from over 18,000 participants in four large international surveys. IGD prevalence was estimated between 0.3% and 1%, significantly lower than gambling addiction. Indicators of IGD, such as withdrawal and tolerance, aligned with DSM-5 criteria but were rarely reported collectively. Most gamers did not exhibit pathological behavior, and evidence linking IGD to adverse physical, social, or mental health outcomes was mixed. The study highlights the importance of distinguishing between passionate gaming and problematic behavior, advocating for robust criteria and cross-cultural research to refine understanding of IGD.

This study explored the impact of musical instrument learning on cognitive, behavioral, and socio-emotional development in children aged 7-9. It compared those receiving extracurricular music training (EMT) with those taking statutory school music lessons. Results showed EMT children had a greater increase in IQ and gross motor skills (e.g., aiming and catching) compared to the other group. Musical aptitude was linked to intelligence, but no significant effects were found for memory or socio-emotional behaviors. This research highlights how learning music can boost specific cognitive and motor abilities, contributing to holistic child development.

This systematic review examines the neural correlates of video gaming, focusing on structural and functional brain changes observed in studies using neuroimaging. It identifies consistent findings in areas such as attention, visuospatial skills, and cognitive control. Video gaming appears to enhance activity in regions like the prefrontal cortex, parietal lobes, and hippocampus, depending on the game genre and exposure. However, variability in study design and participant characteristics complicates conclusions about universal effects. While gaming shows promise for cognitive enhancement and rehabilitation, the review emphasizes the need for standardized methodologies and more robust studies to validate the broader implications of these findings.

This study investigated how video game experience affects executive function in older adults using fMRI. It compared video game players (VGPs) aged 60+ with non-video game players (NVGPs). VGPs outperformed NVGPs in the flanker task, which measures attention and conflict resolution, and showed higher brain activation in regions associated with executive function, such as the prefrontal and parietal cortices. Functional connectivity between these regions was also stronger in VGPs. The findings suggest that playing video games enhances cognitive abilities like multitasking and decision-making in older adults, potentially offering a way to combat age-related cognitive decline.

This comprehensive report reviews strategies for preventing cognitive decline and dementia. It identifies three areas with encouraging but inconclusive evidence for slowing age-related cognitive decline: cognitive-training, managing blood pressure in midlife hypertension, and increased physical activity. It emphasizes the need for rigorous research, noting limitations in current evidence. While interventions are promising for brain health, they cannot yet justify public health campaigns but can inform personal strategies for aging populations.

This study, using data from the Health and Retirement Study, examined whether book reading offers a survival advantage over other types of reading or no reading. Tracking 3,635 adults over 12 years, results showed that book readers had a 20% lower risk of mortality compared to non-book readers, even after adjusting for age, education, health, and other factors. Those who read books lived about four months longer at 80% survival. Cognitive function completely mediated the relationship, suggesting that mental engagement from book reading contributes to longevity. This highlights the unique benefits of reading books for cognitive and overall health.

This review explores how learning a second language may enhance cognitive abilities in aging individuals. It highlights that bilingualism could delay dementia and improve executive functions, such as attention and task-switching, by engaging brain regions that are vulnerable to aging. The authors argue that even late-life language learning can positively impact neuroplasticity, offering a potential strategy for mitigating cognitive decline. Future research aims to refine interventions for maximum cognitive benefit.

This paper examines how physical and cognitive activities can build cognitive reserve, which helps the brain resist damage and delays dementia onset. Physical activities, particularly aerobic exercises, preserve brain volume and improve neural health, while cognitive activities strengthen brain networks and enhance mental flexibility. These activities may slow age-related brain changes and reduce dementia risk, although they should be combined for optimal benefits. Long-term lifestyle changes that include regular physical and mental stimulation could improve brain resilience and cognitive performance.

This meta-analysis evaluated the effects of chess instruction on children's academic performance and cognitive skills, analyzing 24 studies. The findings revealed moderate benefits in mathematics, reading, and cognitive abilities, with the strongest effects seen in mathematics. Longer durations of chess instruction (over 25 hours) produced greater improvements. However, the review cautioned that most studies lacked rigorous control designs, raising concerns about placebo effects or other confounding factors influencing results.

This editorial summarizes research on the cognitive effects of video games and game-like training, emphasizing their potential to enhance brain plasticity. It identifies mechanisms like adaptive difficulty, feedback, and motivation that make games effective for learning and rehabilitation. Games can improve attention, memory, and multitasking, but the benefits often remain task-specific and depend on individual differences like baseline cognitive abilities. Importantly, long-term benefits are unclear, as transfer to unrelated tasks is limited. Integrating game elements with evidence-based training techniques may optimize their effectiveness. This research highlights the promise of games as tools for cognitive development but stresses the need for rigorous methodology to validate their broader applications.

This study investigated how a one-week intensive Gaelic language course affected attentional functions in adults aged 18–78. Participants showed significant improvements in attentional switching, as measured by tasks requiring focus and flexibility, compared to control groups who engaged in non-language activities or no structured courses. Results indicated that even a short period of language learning can enhance cognitive functions. These benefits were maintained in participants who practiced Gaelic for at least five hours per week after the course, emphasizing the importance of continued engagement.

As people age, some cognitive functions decline, like processing speed, working memory, and decision-making, while skills based on cumulative knowledge remain stable. Aging causes structural and functional brain changes, such as synapse loss and slower neuronal communication. Diseases like Alzheimer’s accelerate cognitive decline. However, healthy lifestyle habits—exercise, a balanced diet, cognitive stimulation, and managing health issues—can slow decline and support brain health. This research is significant as it highlights the potential to maintain cognitive abilities and delay dementia through modifiable lifestyle factors, improving the quality of life for the aging population.

This review explores how multisensory integration, the interaction of sensory inputs like sight and sound, shapes working memory. It highlights that memory for objects combining multiple sensory inputs (e.g., an image with a sound) is stronger than for single-sense inputs. Multisensory integration happens at both early and advanced brain processing stages, enhancing memory and decision-making. These findings emphasize that leveraging multiple senses may optimize cognitive function, improve learning, and maintain brain health.

This study investigated how playing action video games (AVGs) affects brain structure and function, focusing on the insula—a brain region crucial for attention and sensorimotor control. Comparing AVG experts and amateurs, the research found that experts had higher functional connectivity between the insula's subregions and larger gray matter volume in specific areas of the left insula. These enhancements were associated with better integration of attentional and sensorimotor networks, reflecting neuroplasticity driven by gaming experience. The findings suggest that AVGs may enhance cognitive skills by improving brain network efficiency, particularly in regions critical for multitasking and coordination.

This research explores how lifelong bilingualism can contribute to cognitive reserve, a concept describing the brain's ability to cope with damage while maintaining function. The findings suggest that bilingual individuals exhibit a delayed onset of Alzheimer's symptoms compared to monolinguals, potentially due to more efficient brain resource utilization. Bilingualism enhances executive functioning (e.g., attention, task-switching) and may increase neural efficiency or compensation. The study emphasizes bilingualism's potential to protect cognitive health, particularly in aging populations, offering a non-pharmacological avenue to bolster brain resilience.

This review highlights the potential of musical training as a tool for neuro-education and neuro-rehabilitation. It shows that music enhances brain plasticity, benefiting motor, auditory, and cognitive systems. Long-term training can aid children with language impairments and improve speech processing, while therapeutic techniques like Music-Supported Therapy help stroke and Parkinson’s patients recover motor function. Listening to music is linked to emotional regulation and improved cognitive outcomes. The study underscores music's multimodal, low-cost value for both education and rehabilitation.