Physical Exercise

This editorial explores brain aging during midlife and how interventions can prevent neurodegeneration later in life. It includes eight studies (both human and rodent) that investigate cognitive decline, the benefits of exercise, and molecular mechanisms underlying memory loss. Notably, exercise enhances cognitive function in both healthy individuals and those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), with virtual reality (VR) showing promise for Alzheimer's patients. The editorial highlights gaps in research, such as the lack of diverse study populations, and emphasizes the need for further exploration of midlife risk factors and their long-term effects.

This study investigated whether one year of resistance training (moderate or heavy intensity) affected brain grey matter volume over a four-year period in older adults (mean age 66). Participants (n=276) were randomly assigned to heavy resistance training (HRT), moderate intensity training (MIT), or a non-exercising control group (CON). MRI scans at baseline, 1, 2, and 4 years showed all groups experienced similar declines in total grey matter, hippocampal, and prefrontal cortex volume, with increased white matter hyperintensities. No significant differences were observed between training groups. A weak association was found between leg strength and white matter hyperintensity volume, but it did not hold after statistical correction. The study suggests resistance training does not prevent age-related brain atrophy in this population. Limitations include the active baseline lifestyle of participants, which may have masked any potential training benefits.

This randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigated the effects of 12 weeks of resistance training (RT) on cognitive performance and brain structure in 70 older adults (60-85 years old) with high and low risk of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Participants were assigned to either RT or a control group. The RT group showed improved response time in executive function tasks and a modest increase in cortical thickness in brain regions associated with memory and cognitive control. However, statistical significance was weak, suggesting more extended interventions may be necessary. The study highlights RT’s potential neuroprotective effects but calls for larger studies to confirm results.

This systematic review examines whether physical exercise acutely affects cognitive function and levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in individuals with Type 1 Diabetes (T1DM), a condition linked to cognitive decline. The review analyzed four studies (totaling 78 participants) with varied exercise intensities, including high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate continuous exercise. Results consistently showed that BDNF levels increased post-exercise, and cognitive performance improved in certain tasks. However, studies had small sample sizes, with only two using randomization and three including control groups. Statistical significance was generally observed, but the generalizability remains uncertain. The authors emphasize the need for further randomized trials to confirm the potential neurocognitive benefits of exercise in T1DM patients.

This review explores how regular exercise improves sleep quality, duration, and disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea. Exercise boosts melatonin production, reduces stress, and regulates body temperature, enhancing sleep. The study cites findings where moderate aerobic exercise, such as 30-minute sessions, improves sleep onset and duration in individuals with insomnia. Statistical evidence supports moderate but significant improvements, though variables like exercise timing and individual fitness levels impact results. The study is a narrative review, meaning it lacks new empirical data but synthesizes existing studies. Limitations include inconsistent methodologies across studies and potential placebo effects in self-reported sleep improvements.

This literature review explores how different types and intensities of physical exercise affect cognitive functions and quality of life in individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The analysis of 42 studies found that moderate aerobic and mixed exercises improve memory and executive function, while strength training supports spatial memory by increasing hippocampal volume. High-intensity exercise boosts BDNF, a protein critical for neuroplasticity, while moderate exercise reduces neurodegenerative biomarkers like amyloid beta and tau. The findings highlight the role of tailored exercise programs in slowing cognitive decline and improving daily living activities, emphasizing physical activity as a non-pharmacological intervention for AD.

This review explores how different intensities of aerobic exercise influence neuroprotective myokines—muscle-derived factors that impact brain health. Regular aerobic exercise enhances brain volume, vascular function, and synaptic plasticity, possibly mediated by myokines such as BDNF, FNDC5 (irisin), CTSB, VEGF, and kynurenine metabolites. While moderate-intensity exercise is well-studied, high-intensity training may enhance these neuroprotective effects, particularly through increased lactate and PGC-1α activation. The review highlights the need for standardized definitions of exercise intensity and further research on high-intensity exercise's role in preventing neurodegenerative diseases.

This study investigated how different intensities of resistance training affect brain health-related biomarkers. Twelve young male participants with no prior strength training experience engaged in a randomized controlled cross-over trial, completing either high-intensity (80% 1RM) or low-intensity (40% 1RM) resistance training. Blood samples showed that high-intensity training significantly increased neurotrophic factors (BDNF, IGF-1, VEGF), while both training intensities lowered homocysteine levels, which is linked to cognitive decline. The study was randomized, included a control period, and used statistical analyses showing significant effects (p < 0.05). However, its small sample size limits generalizability to broader populations.

This study explored how lifestyle behaviors affect cognitive health over ten years in older adults in China. Using data from 5,381 individuals aged 65 and older, researchers grouped participants into three lifestyle profiles: active engagement, moderate engagement, and negative engagement. Those in the active group, characterized by healthy diets, regular physical and cognitive activities, and good sleep quality, showed the lowest risk of cognitive decline and slower rates of memory loss. This research underscores that even partial adoption of healthier lifestyles can meaningfully reduce cognitive impairment risks, emphasizing preventive actions for brain health.

This study evaluated the effects of an exergaming-based esports intervention using the Nintendo Switch™ Fitness Boxing game among older adults in Hong Kong. Over eight weeks, participants in the exergaming group showed significant improvements in physical fitness (lower body strength, agility, aerobic endurance), cognitive performance (attention and executive function), and enjoyment of physical activity compared to a control group. However, no significant changes were observed in flexibility, upper body strength, or loneliness levels. These findings suggest that combining exercise and gaming can support healthier aging through physical and cognitive benefits.

This review highlights the extensive benefits of regular physical activity for older adults. Exercise can counteract age-related declines in cognitive and physical abilities. It improves heart health, strengthens muscles, and enhances balance, reducing the risk of falls and fractures. Physical activity boosts brain function by promoting neurogenesis and preventing atrophy, which supports memory, learning, and overall cognition. Additionally, exercise alleviates depression and anxiety and fosters social-engagement, enhancing quality of life and longevity.

This study investigates the link between cardiovascular health (CVH), assessed using the American Heart Association's "Life's Essential 8" (LE8) algorithm, and cognitive impairment in older adults. Using data from 2,415 participants aged 60+, it found that higher CVH scores significantly reduce the odds of cognitive impairment across measures of memory, processing speed, and fluency. Key lifestyle factors in LE8, such as diet, exercise, and sleep, were highlighted as protective against cognitive decline. This underscores the importance of cardiovascular health in maintaining cognitive function, providing evidence that better heart health supports brain health.

The Harvard Health article "What's Your Brain Care Score?" introduces the McCance Brain Care Score, a 21-point assessment tool developed to help individuals identify actionable steps to reduce the risks of stroke, dementia, and depression. The score evaluates 12 modifiable factors across three domains: physical health (blood pressure, blood sugar, cholesterol, body mass index), lifestyle choices (nutrition, alcohol intake, smoking, aerobic activities, sleep), and social-emotional health (stress-management, social relationships, meaning in life). Each factor is assigned a point value, with higher total scores indicating better brain care. Significantly, a study involving nearly 400,000 adults aged 40 to 69 found that higher Brain Care Scores correlated with lower risks of developing stroke and dementia over a 12.5-year follow-up period. For instance, among individuals in their 60s, a five-point increase in the score was linked to a 33% reduction in stroke risk. These findings suggest that addressing modifiable factors can substantially enhance brain health and cognitive performance.To improve brain health, individuals are encouraged to monitor and manage cardiovascular health metrics, adopt a balanced diet, engage in regular physical activity, ensure sufficient sleep, foster strong social connections, and effectively manage stress. Given Harvard Health's reputable standing and the robust evidence supporting the McCance Brain Care Score, these recommendations are credible and practical for those seeking to enhance brain health and reduce the risk of neurological conditions.

This study developed a model to predict "fitness age" based on physical fitness metrics, using data from 501,774 participants in South Korea (2017–2021). Key indicators like grip strength, VO₂ max, and flexibility were analyzed to create a formula linking fitness level to age. For adults, the model had strong predictive power (93.6% accuracy), while for older adults, it was weaker (24.3%). The study suggests fitness age as a motivational tool for improving health. However, it lacks generalizability beyond Korea and does not include biochemical or psychological health markers. Randomization and blinding were not used, but the large sample size strengthens findings.

This study examines how physical activity and adherence to the MIND diet influence cognitive impairment among 462 adults aged 65+ in Pakistan. Using validated assessment tools, researchers found that 26.4% of participants had mild cognitive impairment, and 48.5% had low adherence to the MIND diet. Low physical activity increased cognitive impairment risk (AOR: 9.94, CI: 6.07–16.27), while higher MIND diet adherence lowered risk (OR: 0.29, CI: 0.18–0.46). The cross-sectional nature of the study means causality cannot be established, but it highlights the need for lifestyle interventions to protect cognitive health. Findings suggest regional and socioeconomic disparities affect cognitive aging, urging targeted public health efforts.

This study examined the link between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and brain myelination in 125 cognitively healthy adults aged 22 to 94. Using advanced MRI techniques, researchers found that higher CRF, measured by VO2max, correlated with greater myelin content in brain regions susceptible to aging-related decline, such as the frontal lobes. The association was strongest in middle-aged and older adults, suggesting that CRF may help maintain white matter integrity. While the study was cross-sectional and cannot establish causation, it provides evidence that aerobic fitness could mitigate brain aging. Limitations include the predominantly White participant sample and the absence of long-term follow-up.

This randomized controlled trial compared Kundalini Yoga (KY) with Memory Enhancement Training (MET) in postmenopausal women at risk for Alzheimer’s due to cognitive decline and cardiovascular risk factors. KY participants showed significant improvements in subjective memory performance and reduced aging-related biomarkers like eotaxin-1. In contrast, MET participants experienced declines in hippocampal connectivity. KY uniquely modulated psycho-neuro-inflammatory pathways, linking cognitive improvements to biological changes. These findings highlight KY as a potential holistic approach to cognitive health.

This literature review examines how regular physical activity enhances neuroplasticity—the brain's ability to adapt and form new connections. Exercise boosts neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, leading to structural improvements in critical areas like the hippocampus, essential for memory and learning. Aerobic and resistance training improve gray matter volume, executive function, and emotional regulation, helping to reduce the risk of cognitive decline, neurodegenerative diseases, and mental health disorders.

This study investigated how moderate-to-vigorous physical activity impacts brain structure in a sample of over 10,000 participants using MRI. Regular exercise was linked to increased brain volumes in regions such as the hippocampus, frontal lobe, and gray and white matter—key areas for memory, learning, and cognitive function. The findings suggest that even lower levels of physical activity than typically recommended can enhance brain health, supporting neuroprotection against aging and neurodegenerative diseases. While self-reported physical activity and a cross-sectional design limit causality, the results align with existing evidence connecting exercise to improved cognitive and structural brain health.

This study examined how short yoga and pranayama breaks impact cognitive function in desk-based workers during prolonged sitting. Participants performed tasks measuring attention and working memory across three conditions: uninterrupted sitting, pranayama, and yoga breaks. Results showed yoga breaks significantly improved reaction times in attention tasks (Flanker Test) compared to pranayama and sitting, although accuracy remained unchanged. Yoga and pranayama did not significantly affect working memory (N-Back Test). Findings suggest that brief, regular yoga breaks can enhance mental alertness in sedentary work environments, but effects on memory require further study.

This review highlights the significant role of physical activity (PA) in improving brain health and reducing cognitive decline, especially in workplace settings. PA enhances neuroplasticity, memory, attention, and productivity by stimulating growth factors like BDNF and reducing stress. Acute benefits include better mood and focus after exercise, while chronic activity reduces dementia risk and counters neurological diseases. The paper emphasizes integrating PA into workplace health programs, such as promoting active commuting, flexible scheduling, and exercise incentives. With tailored programs, employers can boost employee well-being, cognitive performance, and overall health outcomes.

This clinical review examines how physical activity impacts the prevention and management of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and dementia. Regular exercise enhances brain plasticity by promoting neurogenesis, improving vascular health, and reducing systemic inflammation. Studies show up to a 45% reduction in dementia risk and significant improvements in motor and cognitive symptoms in Parkinson's patients. Physical activity is a low-cost, non-pharmacological strategy for mitigating age-related brain decline.

This narrative review explores the psychological benefits of physical activity and sports, emphasizing their role in mental health and emotional resilience. Regular participation in sports fosters mood regulation, stress-management, and cognitive enhancement by triggering neurochemical changes in the brain. It also builds resilience by exposing individuals to structured challenges, promoting social interactions, and strengthening coping mechanisms. However, the paper also warns of risks such as exercise addiction, highlighting the need for balance. Its insights advocate for integrating physical activity into mental health strategies to enhance overall well-being.

This review discusses the newly discovered glymphatic system, which clears waste from the brain and helps maintain cognitive health. physical-exercise appears to enhance the system's function by boosting the clearance of harmful proteins like amyloid-beta, implicated in Alzheimer’s disease. Exercise also increases the expression of AQP4, a protein critical for the glymphatic system's operation. Combined with sleep, which also supports glymphatic activity, exercise contributes to improved memory, reduced neuroinflammation, and overall brain resilience. These findings suggest exercise as a non-drug strategy to prevent cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases.

This study reviews hand grip strength (HGS) as a potential new "vital sign" for assessing overall health. HGS, measured using a handheld dynamometer, is linked to muscle function and predicts risks for conditions like heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and even cognitive decline. Lower grip strength is associated with increased hospitalization and mortality. The review highlights variations in HGS across populations, emphasizing its utility as a quick, non-invasive health indicator. While the evidence is strong, standardization across different demographics remains a challenge.

This cohort study validated the Brain Care Score (BCS), a 21-point tool assessing physical, lifestyle, and social factors to predict dementia and stroke risk. Using data from nearly 400,000 UK Biobank participants, higher BCS scores were significantly associated with reduced dementia and stroke risks, especially in younger individuals. A 5-point BCS increase correlated with 14% and 40% lower dementia and stroke risks, respectively. These findings suggest practical applications for BCS in guiding preventive brain health strategies.

This systematic review examined the effects of yoga on individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia, analyzing ten studies with 421 participants. The findings suggest yoga may improve cognition, mood, balance, and sleep quality. Programs using Kundalini, chair, or Hatha yoga typically lasted 12 weeks and were compared to active or no-intervention controls. However, all studies showed a high risk of bias due to small sample sizes and inconsistent methodologies. The review highlights yoga's potential as a safe and accessible intervention to support brain health and emotional well-being, though higher-quality trials are necessary.

This scoping review evaluated 14 studies on Tai Chi's effects on mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and early-stage dementia. Findings suggest Tai Chi may enhance global cognitive function, memory, and executive skills, while improving balance and reducing arthritis pain. However, results on depressive symptoms and perceptual-motor skills were inconsistent. Mechanistic studies in healthy adults showed increased brain connectivity and gray matter volume with Tai Chi practice, potentially explaining its cognitive benefits. Despite promising results, variations in study quality and methodology limit conclusions. Tai Chi appears to be a safe, non-pharmacological intervention to slow cognitive decline in at-risk populations.

This systematic review and meta-analysis analyzed 54 randomized controlled trials to determine how chronic exercise impacts cognitive functions across different age groups. The study evaluated exercise variables (type, frequency, intensity, duration, and length) and cognitive domains (global cognition, executive function, memory, attention, and processing speed). Results showed that moderate-intensity aerobic exercise significantly enhances global cognition, while resistance training benefits executive function, and mind-body exercises like tai chi improve memory. Older adults exhibited the most notable cognitive improvements. The findings emphasize the importance of regular, tailored exercise regimens in supporting cognitive health and preventing decline.

This randomized clinical trial examined Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) versus fitness walking and a control group among 328 older adults in China with type 2 diabetes and mild cognitive impairment. After 36 weeks, TCC participants showed superior cognitive improvements, measured by the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), compared to the other groups. TCC also improved memory and reduced biomarkers associated with aging and glucose metabolism dysfunction. These findings highlight TCC as a promising mind-body exercise for enhancing cognitive health in at-risk populations, but further research is needed to confirm its broader applicability.

This review highlights how physical-exercise boosts brain health by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, which support memory, learning, and brain plasticity. It explores molecular mechanisms showing how exercise-induced BDNF promotes neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and cognitive improvement. Evidence from animal and human studies suggests regular aerobic exercise delays cognitive decline, combats neuropsychiatric conditions, and enhances brain structure and function. These findings reinforce exercise as a non-pharmacological tool for maintaining cognitive abilities and treating brain-related disorders.

This study examined how a 15-minute walk indoors versus outdoors affects cognitive function in 30 young adults using EEG data and a cognitive task. Results showed that outdoor walks significantly improved attention and working memory, as evidenced by faster reaction times and higher P300 amplitude, a brain activity marker linked to these cognitive functions. Indoor walks, while beneficial for physical activity, did not yield the same cognitive benefits. The findings suggest that outdoor exercise provides unique mental health advantages, likely due to the restorative effects of natural environments. This research highlights the importance of combining exercise with time spent in nature for optimal cognitive and emotional well-being.

The paper reviews how physical activity (PA) positively impacts brain health and cognition across all age groups. Exercise enhances memory, attention, and executive functions through improved brain plasticity and neurogenesis, stimulated by growth factors like BDNF. Neuroimaging studies highlight increased grey matter in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex and better connectivity in key networks such as the default mode and frontoparietal networks. Acute exercise offers short-term cognitive boosts, while chronic PA promotes long-term brain health, countering age-related decline and psychological disorders. The benefits span children to older adults, with no single age group benefiting disproportionately, though targeted exercise types may be more effective for specific populations.

This study compared the cognitive effects of basketball training, a combined endurance and resistance training regimen, and a sedentary control group over four months. Basketball training improved participants' inhibition control (ability to suppress distractions) and working memory, while the endurance and resistance training group saw gains in inhibition and cognitive flexibility (task-switching skills). The control group showed no improvement and some decline. These results suggest that sports involving cognitive engagement, like basketball, enhance brain functions associated with decision-making and attention. The findings highlight the role of dynamic, cognitively demanding activities in promoting cognitive health.

This review explores the effects of Tai Chi on mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in older adults. Evidence indicates that Tai Chi improves memory, executive function, and global cognition. Mechanistically, it enhances brain connectivity, increases hippocampal volume, and modulates inflammation and neurotrophic factors like brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Tai Chi also aids physical balance, reduces falls, and may delay dementia progression. However, variations in study designs and limited long-term data mean results should be interpreted cautiously. Tai Chi offers a safe, low-intensity option to support brain health and mitigate MCI-related declines.

This study investigates the use of wearable technology to estimate cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), a strong predictor of cardiovascular disease risk and mortality. Traditional methods of measuring CRF, such as VO₂max testing, require specialized equipment, limiting accessibility. The study developed machine learning models that analyze wearable sensor data to estimate fitness levels in free-living conditions. Using data from over 11,000 participants, including a longitudinal cohort of 2,675 individuals, the models demonstrated strong accuracy (r = 0.82). A control group was used, and external validation was performed with the UK Biobank Validation Study (N=181). The method showed statistical significance but tended to underpredict declines in fitness over time. Limitations include reliance on submaximal VO₂max testing and potential biases in lower-fitness populations.

This study investigated the immediate impact of slow yoga breathing (SYB) at six breaths per minute on working memory and cardiac activity in 40 yoga practitioners. Techniques like alternate nostril breathing (ANB) and right nostril breathing (RNB) improved reaction times and accuracy on challenging memory tasks (2-back condition), reflecting better cognitive efficiency. SYB also increased heart rate variability, indicating enhanced autonomic control. These findings highlight SYB’s potential to support mental focus and stress-management, with implications for tasks requiring sustained cognitive effort.

This large-scale cohort study assessed how daily step counts and their intensity impact dementia risk in adults aged 40–79. Data from 78,430 participants wearing accelerometers revealed that walking up to 9,826 steps daily was linked to a 50% lower risk of developing dementia. Even modest step counts of 3,826 daily steps reduced dementia risk by 25%. Walking at a faster pace provided stronger protective effects than casual walking. These findings emphasize the role of regular physical activity in preventing cognitive decline and promoting long-term brain health.

The paper outlines the American Heart Association's updated "Life’s Essential 8," a framework for cardiovascular health that adds sleep health to the original seven metrics. These metrics—diet, physical activity, nicotine exposure, sleep, body mass index, blood lipids, blood glucose, and blood pressure—are now measured with a 0-100 point system for more nuanced tracking of individual and population health. This approach emphasizes the importance of maintaining high cardiovascular health for better outcomes, including reduced risks of cardiovascular disease, dementia, and improved overall brain function.

This study explores how voluntary exercise enhances dopamine (DA) release in the striatum of mice, a brain region critical for movement, mood, and reward. Exercise significantly boosted the release of DA, independent of changes in overall dopamine levels or acetylcholine. These effects relied on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a molecule known for supporting neuron growth and plasticity. Mice lacking adequate BDNF did not exhibit increased DA release from exercise. The findings are important for understanding how exercise could benefit conditions like Parkinson’s disease, depression, and anxiety by enhancing neural communication in pathways associated with motor and mood regulation.

This systematic review analyzed studies combining strength and cognitive-training, including "strength exergaming," which pairs physical-exercise with interactive video games. The findings suggest that simultaneous strength-cognitive-training improves both physical and cognitive functions, particularly working memory and balance. However, results were inconsistent for sequent training methods, and the evidence remains limited. Strength exergaming shows promise in enhancing motivation and adherence to training, potentially increasing the cognitive benefits of strength exercise. The review highlights the need for rigorous studies to optimize training protocols and validate outcomes.

This pilot randomized controlled trial compared Tai Chi (TC), conventional exercise (EX), and no intervention (control) in 37 older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) over 24 weeks. Both TC and EX improved global cognitive function and memory compared to controls. TC specifically enhanced cognitive flexibility and executive function, measured by the Trail Making Test, more effectively than EX. Improvements in physical performance, mood, and quality of life were also noted in both exercise groups. TC’s meditative and motor complexity may explain its superior cognitive benefits. This study highlights Tai Chi’s potential as a practical, non-invasive strategy to slow cognitive decline in MCI.

This research explores how aerobic physical-exercise (PE) benefits brain health by improving cognition, reducing depression, and alleviating chronic pain. PE fosters anti-inflammatory effects, promotes hippocampal plasticity, prevents neuronal loss, and enhances the brain's structural integrity. The study highlights the connection between bones and the brain ("bone-brain axis"), showing how PE triggers beneficial protein production in bones that positively impacts the brain. It provides a basis for using exercise as a non-medical intervention for neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

This study protocol outlines a randomized controlled trial to assess the effects of Integrated Yoga Therapy (IYT) on cognitive impairment, cardiac dysfunction, and quality of life in breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Participants in the yoga group will practice IYT, including postures, breathing exercises, and meditation, five days per week for 14-24 weeks. The trial measures cognitive performance, brain health (fMRI and biomarkers like BDNF), and heart function (HRV and echocardiography). Expected outcomes include reduced chemotherapy-induced cognitive and cardiac side effects and improved overall well-being, addressing a critical need for non-pharmacological interventions in cancer care.

This study explored how 10 minutes of moderate-intensity running impacts mood, executive function, and brain activity in young adults. Using a task that measures cognitive control (the Stroop task), researchers found improved reaction times and mood after running, compared to resting. Brain imaging revealed increased activity in the prefrontal cortex, a key area for decision-making and emotional regulation. These findings highlight running’s potential to simultaneously enhance cognitive performance and promote positive emotions, making it an accessible tool for mental and brain health.

This study assessed how aerobic exercise impacts white matter health in older adults over six months. Participants engaged in walking, dancing, or active control exercises, with walking and dancing showing improved white matter integrity (T1w/T2w signal) compared to declines in the control group. Enhanced white matter integrity in late-myelinating areas, like the corpus callosum, correlated with improved episodic memory, suggesting neuroplasticity persists in aging brains. The findings indicate aerobic exercise can slow age-related brain decline, benefiting memory and overall cognitive health.

This review highlights the role of physical-exercises, including aerobic, resistance training, martial arts, and dance, in enhancing cognitive functions. Activities like aerobic exercises and resistance training improve memory, processing speed, and brain connectivity by stimulating brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF) and increasing cerebral blood flow. Martial arts and open-skill sports like tennis also boost executive functions, including decision-making and attention. Dance is especially effective in older adults, enhancing brain volume and memory due to its multifaceted nature involving coordination and social interaction. The review emphasizes exercise's potential to prevent cognitive decline across age groups.

This study investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness (VO₂max) and brain morphology in older adults (aged 65-75). Using MRI, researchers examined changes in grey matter volume, cortical thickness, and cerebral blood flow before and after a single 30-minute session of moderate-intensity cycling or rest. While exercise did not significantly alter brain volume or activity, higher VO₂max was linked to thicker cortex and lower blood flow in the hippocampus, suggesting more efficient oxygen use in fit individuals. The study used a randomized control design (24 in the exercise group, 25 in relaxation). Limitations included small sample size and short intervention duration, affecting generalizability.

This study analyzed grip strength in 9,431 adults (18–92 years) as part of the GenoFit study to establish normative data and assess associations with health variables. The study found that grip strength is strongly linked to lean mass, cardiorespiratory fitness, bone density, and disease prevalence (p < 0.001). A control group was used for comparison, and statistical analyses adjusted for confounders. The study's large sample size improves generalizability, though its cross-sectional design limits causal inference. Results suggest grip strength is a valuable screening tool for aging-related health risks, supporting early intervention strategies.

This systematic review examined six randomized controlled trials on yoga's impact on cognitive functions in healthy older adults. Four studies reported improvements in memory, attention, processing speed, and executive functions. The benefits were attributed to yoga's combination of physical postures, breathing, and meditation. However, the studies varied widely in yoga styles, duration, and intensity, making comparisons difficult. The overall risk of bias was high due to methodological inconsistencies, small sample sizes, and lack of blinding. Despite these limitations, the review highlights yoga as a promising intervention to support cognitive health in aging populations, warranting further research with robust designs.

This study protocol outlines a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effects of an 8-style Tai Chi intervention on cognitive function in 106 participants with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) due to cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD). Participants will engage in 30-minute Tai Chi sessions, three times weekly for 24 weeks. The study will measure global cognitive function, specific cognitive domains (e.g., memory, attention), and brain activity through MRI and event-related potential tests. By comparing Tai Chi to a control group receiving only health education, this research aims to explore Tai Chi's potential as a safe, effective therapy for enhancing neuroplasticity and cognitive health in individuals with CSVD, a major contributor to vascular dementia.

This systematic review examines how resistance training (RT) induces neuroplastic changes in the brain and nervous system, improving cognitive and motor functions in health and disease. RT enhances cortical excitability, motor unit recruitment, and brain connectivity while reducing inhibitory processes, particularly in aging populations and individuals with neurological conditions like Parkinson’s or stroke. These adaptations contribute to strength, balance, and functional mobility. However, the link between neural changes and motor performance is not consistently demonstrated, highlighting the need for advanced analytical models to clarify mechanisms. RT emerges as a promising tool for both cognitive and physical health, requiring tailored approaches to optimize benefits.

This study explored how an 8-week Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) intervention influences brain functional network plasticity and cognitive flexibility in healthy adults. Compared to aerobic exercise and a control group, TCC significantly improved brain network specialization, increasing local efficiency and nodal clustering in regions like the thalamus and cingulate gyrus. These neural changes correlated with better cognitive flexibility, highlighting TCC's potential to enhance mental agility by strengthening brain connectivity and regional efficiency. Findings suggest TCC as a valuable mind-body practice to improve cognitive function and support brain health, though larger studies are needed.

This review explores yoga's therapeutic role in treating neuropsychological disorders, including anxiety, depression, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson’s. Yoga enhances neurotransmitter activity (like GABA and serotonin), brain connectivity, and neuroplasticity, improving memory, mood, and stress response. Neuroimaging studies show increased gray matter and hippocampal volume in yoga practitioners, associated with cognitive resilience. While yoga demonstrates significant benefits for mental and neurological health, variability in study designs and sample sizes limits definitive conclusions.

This scoping review examined 116 studies on how running impacts mental health, categorizing effects into short-term (acute bouts), long-term (running programs), and habitual running. Evidence suggests running improves mood, reduces anxiety and depression, and enhances self-esteem. Long-term running is associated with improved resilience and social connectivity, while short-term bouts can alleviate stress and boost mood. However, risks such as exercise addiction and lack of participant diversity limit findings. These results highlight running's potential for mental well-being while identifying gaps in the research, particularly for non-elite runners and marginalized groups.

This randomized controlled trial evaluated the effects of instability resistance training (I-FRT) compared to stable machine-based training on cognitive functions in 68 older adults over 10 weeks. The I-FRT group showed significant improvements in working memory, processing speed, and response inhibition, assessed through tests like the Digit Memory Test and Stroop-Color-Word Test. These benefits stem from the combined cognitive and physical challenges of balancing during resistance training. While both training types improved physical strength, I-FRT uniquely enhanced executive functions, indicating its potential for promoting cognitive resilience in aging populations. The findings highlight the brain-health benefits of integrating balance into strength exercises.

This study explored how resistance training affects brain health in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Over 18 months, participants who engaged in high-intensity resistance training showed better memory, executive function, and global cognition compared to controls. MRI scans revealed that resistance training preserved hippocampal subfields prone to Alzheimer’s-related atrophy, including the CA1 and subiculum. These structural changes were linked to improved cognitive performance, highlighting resistance training as a potential non-drug approach to delay neurodegeneration in MCI patients.

The Scientific American article "Why Your Brain Needs Exercise" explores the evolutionary basis for the connection between physical activity and brain health. It highlights that aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis, particularly in the hippocampus, enhancing memory and cognitive function. The article discusses the role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in supporting neuron growth and survival, noting that exercise increases BDNF levels. It also examines how physical activity improves executive functions, such as planning and multitasking, by engaging the prefrontal cortex. The authors suggest that our ancestors' physically demanding lifestyles may have shaped this link between movement and brain development.Regular aerobic exercise is significant for brain health, as it supports neuroplasticity and cognitive resilience. Incorporating activities like walking, running, or cycling into one's routine can enhance memory, executive function, and overall mental well-being. Given Scientific American's reputable standing and the evidence presented, these recommendations are credible and align with current scientific understanding.

This systematic review analyzed 11 studies to understand how yoga affects brain health. Yoga, combining physical postures, breathing, and meditation, was found to improve brain structure and function. Studies showed increased gray matter volume in the hippocampus (key for memory) and better connectivity in brain networks like the default mode network (DMN), which supports self-referential thinking and memory. Yoga also reduced age-related brain atrophy and enhanced cognitive functions like memory and attention. These findings suggest yoga as a promising, accessible way to support brain health and combat neurodegenerative diseases, although further rigorous studies are needed.

This systematic review examined the impact of resistance exercises on brain structure and function and their relationship to cognitive improvement. Resistance training, including moderate-to-high intensity workouts, improved executive functions and memory in older adults. Functional changes were observed in the prefrontal cortex, with enhanced brain activation patterns correlating with better task performance. Structural benefits included reduced white matter atrophy and increased cortical thickness in key brain regions. The evidence suggests resistance training promotes neuroplasticity and combats cognitive aging. However, variations in study design and sample sizes call for further research to standardize protocols and validate findings.

This review explores how exercise, sports, and performance arts improve cognition through skill acquisition. Activities that require learning new skills, such as dance, sports, or playing a musical instrument, enhance cognitive functions like memory, attention, and problem-solving by engaging the brain in physical and mental challenges. Unlike routine exercise, skill-based activities provide long-term cognitive benefits by promoting neuroplasticity. Findings suggest that cognitive improvements depend more on the mental engagement required for skill acquisition than on the physical intensity of the activity. This highlights the potential of integrating mentally stimulating physical activities into routines to support lifelong brain health.

This research highlights the positive impact of physical activity (PA) on brain health, emphasizing how movement fosters cognitive function, combats aging, and mitigates neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's. PA promotes the release of neurotrophic factors like BDNF and other molecules from muscles, which enhance neuroplasticity, memory, and mood regulation. Mechanisms include increased neurogenesis, mitochondrial biogenesis, and epigenetic regulation. The findings affirm the ancient principle of "a sound mind in a sound body," linking exercise to lifelong cognitive vitality.

This review examines how physical activity, sports, and exercise improve cognitive functioning across various populations. It highlights that consistent physical activity enhances brain plasticity, memory, attention, and executive functions. Among children and adolescents, regular aerobic fitness improves brain structure and cognitive speed. In the elderly, exercise mitigates cognitive decline and neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer’s. Mechanisms like neurogenesis and increased BDNF are discussed, though further studies are required to confirm exact pathways. The paper emphasizes tailored exercise programs to optimize cognitive health for different age groups and conditions.

This study investigates how regular participation in sports affects attention and brain function in young adults using Event-Related Potentials (ERPs). Thirty-three participants were grouped into swimmers, karate practitioners, and irregular exercisers. Results showed that regular exercisers, regardless of sport type, had improved brain responses, as indicated by higher P3 amplitudes (linked to attention) and shorter latencies (faster cognitive processing). These findings suggest that consistent physical activity positively influences attentional resources and cognitive speed, highlighting exercise's general benefit to brain health.

This randomized controlled trial compared Modified Chen-Style Tai Chi (MTC) and 24-Style Tai Chi (TC-24) in 78 adults over 55 to evaluate their effects on cognitive function, balance, and physical fitness. Both styles improved cognitive scores, balance, and fitness after 12 weeks of practice, but MTC demonstrated greater enhancements due to its more complex movements, which stimulate neuroplasticity and brain-derived neurotrophic factors. Participants in MTC showed significant improvements in cognitive assessments, static and dynamic balance tests, and aerobic capacity. These findings suggest that incorporating cognitively challenging exercises like MTC into routines can offer superior brain and physical health benefits for aging populations.

This paper highlights the extensive benefits of physical-exercise on brain health, particularly its role in protecting against mental health disorders, neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, and acquired brain injuries such as strokes. Exercise is shown to promote cognitive function and neuroplasticity through mechanisms like increased production of neurotrophic factors (e.g., BDNF), reduced inflammation, and improved brain vascularization. These findings underscore the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to enhance brain resilience and slow disease progression.

This scoping review examined eight studies investigating yoga's impact on individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia. Yoga, including Hatha and Kundalini styles, improved cognitive functions like memory, attention, and executive function, alongside mood and sleep quality. Neuroimaging showed enhanced brain connectivity and reduced atrophy in key regions like the hippocampus. Despite positive outcomes, the studies varied in design, yoga styles, and intervention length, limiting conclusions. Yoga appears to be a safe, promising tool for improving cognitive and emotional health in older adults with MCI or dementia, warranting further rigorous research.

This mini-review highlights how high-intensity interval training (HIIT) enhances brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, a protein critical for brain plasticity, memory, and learning. HIIT involves short bursts of intense exercise, which elicit higher BDNF increases than traditional moderate exercise. In both animal and human studies, HIIT boosted BDNF in the brain, supporting neuronal growth and metabolic health. These findings underscore HIIT's potential for cognitive improvement and brain health, especially in combating stress and aging-related decline.

This review explores how exercise promotes neurogenesis (the growth of new neurons) in the hippocampus, a brain region critical for memory and learning. The process is mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein essential for neuron survival and connectivity. Exercise boosts BDNF levels, enhancing cognitive function and emotional health. In animal studies, increased BDNF improved learning, memory, and neuroplasticity. Human studies, while indirect, show exercise's role in boosting BDNF and its link to improved brain health. The findings highlight the molecular pathways through which physical activity combats cognitive decline, stress, and neurodegeneration.

This study assessed the effects of Tai Chi on cognitive functions and daily living activities in 160 older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in Hong Kong. Participants practicing Tai Chi twice weekly for 16 weeks showed significant improvement in cognitive performance (measured by the Mini-Mental State Examination) and their ability to perform daily tasks (instrumental activities of daily living, IADL), compared to a control group with no intervention. However, while these gains were statistically significant, they were modest and within the range of potential measurement error. The findings suggest Tai Chi as a potential, accessible intervention for enhancing cognitive health and maintaining independence among older adults with MCI.

This study compared brain structure and function in 13 long-term yoga practitioners and 13 matched non-practitioners. Results revealed that yoga practitioners had larger left hippocampal volumes, a brain region vital for learning and memory. Functional MRI during a memory task showed less activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, suggesting greater neural efficiency. These findings align with research on how yoga impacts cognition and stress regulation, emphasizing its potential for improving brain health, especially in memory and emotional resilience.

This review highlights the profound effects of physical-exercise (PE) on brain function and well-being. PE induces neuroplasticity, enhancing memory, attention, and executive functions by promoting neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). It improves psychological well-being, reducing anxiety and depression through increased neurotransmitters like serotonin. Both aerobic and resistance exercises positively affect brain structure and function. Epigenetic changes triggered by PE further enhance brain adaptability, making it a critical tool for preventing cognitive decline and improving mental health across all age groups.

This randomized controlled trial examined the impact of Tai Chi (TC) on cognitive performance and biomarkers in 66 older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Participants practiced TC for 50 minutes, three times weekly for six months, or were in a control group receiving health education. The TC group showed significant improvements in memory and executive function, as well as increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, a protein linked to brain health and plasticity. These findings suggest that TC may enhance cognitive abilities and support brain health in individuals at risk of cognitive decline, likely through neuroplasticity and biochemical changes.

This study explored how 10 minutes of walking impacts cognitive tasks and academic performance in different age groups. Elementary through college students showed significant improvement in tasks like sequential memory and feature detection. For high school students, low-achievers demonstrated substantial gains in mathematical problem-solving, particularly in higher-order skills like analysis, after walking. These results emphasize the cognitive benefits of brief physical activity, supporting its use to enhance focus and learning. Walking's simplicity and accessibility make it a valuable tool for improving brain health and countering sedentary lifestyles.

This study reviews the neuroprotective effects of exercise, highlighting its ability to maintain brain health across the lifespan. Physical activity supports brain function by increasing neurotrophic factors like BDNF, enhancing hippocampal neurogenesis, and protecting the blood-brain barrier. Exercise also improves glymphatic clearance, aiding in the removal of harmful proteins such as amyloid-beta, which is linked to neurodegenerative diseases. These mechanisms contribute to better memory, mood, and cognitive resilience, even in older adults.

This study explored how aerobic fitness (measured by VO2max) impacts the functional brain networks of young adults. Using brain imaging, researchers found that higher aerobic fitness levels were linked to better connectivity in brain regions that support memory, attention, and problem-solving skills. Stronger connections in these networks were also associated with higher fluid intelligence, suggesting aerobic fitness could enhance cognitive abilities. This underscores the brain-health benefits of maintaining physical fitness through aerobic exercise.

This study investigated how six 60-minute sessions of Hatha yoga, which included mindfulness meditation, influenced working memory (WM) and mindfulness in 43 participants. Results showed significant improvements in WM maintenance (Digit Span Forward) and manipulation (Digit Span Backward, Letter-Number Sequencing). Participants also reported increased mindfulness, although changes in mindfulness were not linked to WM improvements. Benefits were more pronounced in those with prior yoga experience. The findings suggest yoga enhances cognitive functions and mindfulness, though mechanisms remain unclear, and further research with larger, diverse samples is needed.

This study examined how changes in walking habits over a decade influence cognitive health and brain structure in older adults. Using MRI and cognitive tests, researchers found that maintaining or increasing walking activity was associated with reduced hippocampal shrinkage, better preservation of gray matter and white matter microstructure, and slower cognitive decline. Importantly, long-term consistency in walking was more predictive of these benefits than baseline activity levels or short-term changes. This highlights walking's potential role in promoting brain health and mitigating age-related declines.

This research explores how running impacts brain health, specifically neurogenesis in the hippocampus, a region vital for memory. It demonstrates that voluntary running increases the growth of new neurons, enhances synaptic plasticity, and improves memory and learning in both rodents and humans. Exercise triggers neurotransmitter changes, elevates growth factors like BDNF, and boosts neural connections in critical brain regions. These changes contribute to better spatial navigation, memory discrimination, and potentially delay age-related cognitive decline. The findings highlight the dynamic interaction between physical activity and brain adaptability.

This study explored how exercise increases levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein crucial for memory, learning, and mental health. Using animal models, researchers found that prolonged physical activity elevated BDNF expression in the hippocampus. This was linked to the production of β-hydroxybutyrate (DBHB), a molecule created during exercise, which inhibits enzymes (HDAC2 and HDAC3) that typically suppress BDNF. Elevated BDNF also enhanced neurotransmitter activity, improving brain plasticity and potentially protecting against conditions like depression and neurodegenerative diseases. These findings highlight the molecular link between physical-exercise and brain health, emphasizing its role in improving cognition and emotional well-being.

This study explored how different types of exercise affect adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) in male rats. Sustained aerobic exercise, like running, significantly enhanced AHN, which supports learning, memory, and stress resilience. In contrast, high-intensity interval training (HIT) and resistance training showed minimal or no benefits for AHN. Genetic predisposition played a role: rats bred for high aerobic response benefited more from exercise. These findings highlight that aerobic activities, especially sustained ones, can boost brain health by promoting new neuron growth in the hippocampus.

This study analyzed handgrip strength across different age groups and sexes in the U.S. population using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2012. The study included 3,497 men and 3,400 women and found that grip strength peaks in the 30s before declining with age. Men exhibited higher grip strength than women, but their rate of decline was steeper. The study categorized individuals into Health Benefit Zones (HBZ) to assess fitness levels. The study was cross-sectional, limiting causal conclusions, but it provides a valuable benchmark for assessing muscular fitness, which has been linked to cognitive performance and metabolic health.

This study evaluated the cognitive and physiological impacts of yoga in 30 young healthy adults over five months. Participants practiced yoga for 90 minutes daily, six days a week, including postures, breathing techniques, and meditation. Results showed significant improvements in cognitive functions such as attention, memory, and executive function, linked to changes in brain activity (EEG band power) and heart rate variability (HRV). The findings suggest yoga enhances autonomic nervous system balance, boosting parasympathetic activity while reducing sympathetic stress responses, supporting mental alertness and relaxation. This highlights yoga's potential for improving cognitive performance and stress regulation.

This paper discusses the significant effects of exercise on brain health and cognitive function. Exercise boosts neuroplasticity—the brain's ability to adapt and form new connections—by increasing blood flow, stimulating growth factors like BDNF, and enhancing synaptic activity. These changes improve memory, attention, and overall learning capacity. It also highlights exercise's protective role against cognitive decline, Alzheimer's disease, depression, and anxiety. Aerobic and resistance exercises are especially effective for brain volume growth and faster neural communication. The paper emphasizes exercise as an accessible, low-cost intervention to improve mental and physical health across all ages.

This theoretical framework explores how yoga-based practices (YBP)—involving movement, breath regulation, and attention—affect brain health and cognitive performance. Evidence suggests YBP reduces stress and improves body awareness, emotional regulation, and cognition by modulating neural circuits, including the insula, prefrontal cortex, and basal ganglia. Yoga's slow, deliberate movements enhance interoception, coordination, and neuroplasticity, while controlled breathing promotes vagal tone and stress resilience. These findings highlight yoga's potential as a holistic approach to mental and physical well-being, though precise mechanisms need further study.

This review highlights the role of resistance exercise in reducing anxiety, examining both short-term and long-term effects. Low-to-moderate intensity resistance training (50–70% of maximum effort) was most effective at lowering anxiety levels, with single sessions offering immediate relief and long-term programs providing sustained benefits. Resistance training reduces anxiety by influencing stress-regulating systems, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. It also improves mood and cognitive resilience across diverse populations. While results are promising, more research is needed to understand the mechanisms and benefits in clinical anxiety disorders.

This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated 20 studies on Tai Chi's effects on cognitive performance in older adults, including those with and without cognitive impairment. Results showed significant improvements in executive function, global cognition, and memory for both groups. Tai Chi outperformed non-intervention controls and, in some cases, active interventions like walking or other exercises. The cognitive benefits are linked to Tai Chi's combination of aerobic, meditative, and coordinated movement elements, which promote neuroplasticity and stress reduction. However, variations in study quality, intervention types, and outcome measures suggest the need for more robust, long-term trials.

This meta-analysis examined the effects of Tai Chi on cognitive function in older adults across eight studies, including intervention and cross-sectional research. Tai Chi significantly improved global cognitive function (measured by MMSE) and memory tasks like verbal and visual working memory (DSB, VSB). Improvements in executive function were less consistent but showed potential. The findings highlight Tai Chi as a beneficial mind-body exercise for enhancing cognitive health and slowing cognitive decline in aging populations. However, variability in study quality, sample sizes, and Tai Chi styles limits generalizability. Tai Chi’s focus on mindful movement and coordination may support cognitive and memory functions.

This study examined how a single yoga session compares to aerobic exercise in improving cognitive performance among 30 female college students. Participants completed tasks assessing attention and working memory after yoga, aerobic exercise, and baseline conditions. Results showed yoga significantly improved reaction times and accuracy on demanding tasks, especially for working memory and inhibitory control, compared to the other conditions. Aerobic exercise showed no significant cognitive benefits. Yoga's meditative and focused nature may enhance executive functions, suggesting it as a practical option for boosting mental performance, even after short sessions.

This paper reviews the effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive function and brain health across different populations. Studies show that physically active individuals have lower rates of cognitive decline and dementia. Aerobic exercise, particularly in older adults, enhances memory, executive function, and processing speed. It also influences brain structure, such as increasing hippocampal volume and improving functional connectivity. These effects are mediated by factors like improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced inflammation, and increased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).

This research explores the profound benefits of physical activity on brain health and cognition across the human lifespan. Aerobic exercise is shown to protect against age-related brain volume loss, especially in areas like the hippocampus, which is crucial for memory. Exercise promotes neurogenesis (new brain cells), angiogenesis (new blood vessels), and improved synaptic plasticity—key for learning and memory. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a central molecule in these processes. The study underscores how exercise not only boosts mental performance but also serves as a preventative strategy against cognitive decline.

This review highlights how aerobic exercise influences the brain and promotes both behavioral and neural plasticity. It details changes like increased blood flow, neurogenesis (creation of new brain cells), and angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels), which enhance cognition, mood, and memory. Exercise also benefits individuals across all ages, from improving academic performance in children to slowing cognitive decline in older adults. The research connects physical fitness with brain resilience, showing its therapeutic potential for mental health issues like depression and anxiety, and even neurodegenerative diseases. These findings emphasize exercise as a tool for maintaining and improving brain health.

This review highlights the impact of aerobic exercise on brain structure, focusing on key regions like the hippocampus and motor cortex. Aerobic activity enhances neuroplasticity through mechanisms such as neurogenesis (growth of new neurons), angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels), and structural changes in gray and white matter. Regular exercise increases hippocampal volume, which is critical for memory and learning, and improves overall brain health. These effects have been observed across all ages and are particularly beneficial in mitigating age-related cognitive decline. The findings underscore the brain's adaptability to physical activity, with implications for promoting mental health and combating neurological diseases.

This review explores the effects of physical activity, specifically aerobic and resistance training, on brain and cognitive health across all ages. It highlights that exercise benefits brain structures like the hippocampus, associated with memory, and the prefrontal cortex, essential for executive function. Aerobic training supports neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and enhanced connectivity in brain networks, while resistance training may promote cognitive health through factors like insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1). Exercise benefits are most notable in children’s learning, young adults' cognitive efficiency, and older adults' memory and multitasking, indicating its role in lifelong brain health.

This randomized controlled trial studied the impact of aerobic exercise on hippocampal size and memory in older adults. Over a year, 120 participants either followed a walking routine or stretching exercises. Results showed a 2% increase in hippocampal volume in the aerobic exercise group, effectively reversing 1-2 years of age-related loss. This growth correlated with improved spatial memory and higher levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein supporting brain health. Stretching exercises, by contrast, saw a decline in hippocampal volume. These findings highlight aerobic exercise as a powerful tool for enhancing memory and protecting against cognitive decline in aging populations.

This study examined how aerobic exercise impacts cognition and Alzheimer’s-related biomarkers in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Over six months, participants engaged in either aerobic exercise or stretching. Women in the aerobic group showed significant improvements in executive functions like multitasking and decision-making, alongside better glucose regulation and reduced cortisol levels. Men experienced smaller cognitive benefits but showed increases in growth factors linked to brain health. These results highlight aerobic exercise as a non-drug strategy to slow cognitive decline, especially in women at risk for Alzheimer’s disease, through mechanisms like improved metabolism and reduced stress hormones.

This meta-analysis examined how aerobic exercise impacts cognitive functions like memory, attention, and executive function. Across 29 randomized controlled trials with over 2,000 participants, results showed modest improvements in cognitive abilities for individuals engaging in supervised aerobic activities like walking or jogging compared to those who did not. The findings highlight that while exercise generally enhances cognitive health, effects vary by cognitive domain. Memory benefits were more pronounced in individuals with mild cognitive impairment, potentially reducing risks of dementia.

This review highlights the potential cognitive benefits of resistance training in older adults, an area less studied compared to aerobic exercise. Resistance training was shown to improve memory, executive functions, and global cognition, possibly by increasing levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and reducing homocysteine, which are linked to brain health. The exercise also combats sarcopenia, enhancing physical health and reducing fall risk. Despite promising evidence from trials, larger and more consistent studies are needed to determine optimal training parameters and understand its mechanisms. Resistance training offers a dual benefit for brain and body, making it a valuable component of aging health strategies.

This study followed 6,089 healthy men, aged 45-68, over 25 years to determine if midlife grip strength predicts old-age disability. Participants were categorized into strength tertiles, and their functional abilities were assessed decades later. Those with weaker grip strength in midlife had a significantly higher risk of slow walking speed, inability to rise from a chair, and self-care disability. The study controlled for chronic conditions and found grip strength was an independent predictor of future disability. The findings suggest that maintaining muscle strength in midlife may offer a reserve capacity that helps prevent functional limitations in old age. However, the study focused on Japanese-American men, limiting generalizability.