Aerobic Exercises

This editorial explores brain aging during midlife and how interventions can prevent neurodegeneration later in life. It includes eight studies (both human and rodent) that investigate cognitive decline, the benefits of exercise, and molecular mechanisms underlying memory loss. Notably, exercise enhances cognitive function in both healthy individuals and those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), with virtual reality (VR) showing promise for Alzheimer's patients. The editorial highlights gaps in research, such as the lack of diverse study populations, and emphasizes the need for further exploration of midlife risk factors and their long-term effects.

This review explores how different intensities of aerobic exercise influence neuroprotective myokines—muscle-derived factors that impact brain health. Regular aerobic exercise enhances brain volume, vascular function, and synaptic plasticity, possibly mediated by myokines such as BDNF, FNDC5 (irisin), CTSB, VEGF, and kynurenine metabolites. While moderate-intensity exercise is well-studied, high-intensity training may enhance these neuroprotective effects, particularly through increased lactate and PGC-1α activation. The review highlights the need for standardized definitions of exercise intensity and further research on high-intensity exercise's role in preventing neurodegenerative diseases.

This study investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness (VO₂max) and brain morphology in older adults (aged 65-75). Using MRI, researchers examined changes in grey matter volume, cortical thickness, and cerebral blood flow before and after a single 30-minute session of moderate-intensity cycling or rest. While exercise did not significantly alter brain volume or activity, higher VO₂max was linked to thicker cortex and lower blood flow in the hippocampus, suggesting more efficient oxygen use in fit individuals. The study used a randomized control design (24 in the exercise group, 25 in relaxation). Limitations included small sample size and short intervention duration, affecting generalizability.

This study examined the link between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and brain myelination in 125 cognitively healthy adults aged 22 to 94. Using advanced MRI techniques, researchers found that higher CRF, measured by VO2max, correlated with greater myelin content in brain regions susceptible to aging-related decline, such as the frontal lobes. The association was strongest in middle-aged and older adults, suggesting that CRF may help maintain white matter integrity. While the study was cross-sectional and cannot establish causation, it provides evidence that aerobic fitness could mitigate brain aging. Limitations include the predominantly White participant sample and the absence of long-term follow-up.

This literature review explores how different types and intensities of physical exercise affect cognitive functions and quality of life in individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The analysis of 42 studies found that moderate aerobic and mixed exercises improve memory and executive function, while strength training supports spatial memory by increasing hippocampal volume. High-intensity exercise boosts BDNF, a protein critical for neuroplasticity, while moderate exercise reduces neurodegenerative biomarkers like amyloid beta and tau. The findings highlight the role of tailored exercise programs in slowing cognitive decline and improving daily living activities, emphasizing physical activity as a non-pharmacological intervention for AD.

This scoping review examined 116 studies on how running impacts mental health, categorizing effects into short-term (acute bouts), long-term (running programs), and habitual running. Evidence suggests running improves mood, reduces anxiety and depression, and enhances self-esteem. Long-term running is associated with improved resilience and social connectivity, while short-term bouts can alleviate stress and boost mood. However, risks such as exercise addiction and lack of participant diversity limit findings. These results highlight running's potential for mental well-being while identifying gaps in the research, particularly for non-elite runners and marginalized groups.

This meta-analysis examined how aerobic exercise impacts cognitive functions like memory, attention, and executive function. Across 29 randomized controlled trials with over 2,000 participants, results showed modest improvements in cognitive abilities for individuals engaging in supervised aerobic activities like walking or jogging compared to those who did not. The findings highlight that while exercise generally enhances cognitive health, effects vary by cognitive domain. Memory benefits were more pronounced in individuals with mild cognitive impairment, potentially reducing risks of dementia.

This research explores how aerobic physical-exercise (PE) benefits brain health by improving cognition, reducing depression, and alleviating chronic pain. PE fosters anti-inflammatory effects, promotes hippocampal plasticity, prevents neuronal loss, and enhances the brain's structural integrity. The study highlights the connection between bones and the brain ("bone-brain axis"), showing how PE triggers beneficial protein production in bones that positively impacts the brain. It provides a basis for using exercise as a non-medical intervention for neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

This study explored how aerobic fitness (measured by VO2max) impacts the functional brain networks of young adults. Using brain imaging, researchers found that higher aerobic fitness levels were linked to better connectivity in brain regions that support memory, attention, and problem-solving skills. Stronger connections in these networks were also associated with higher fluid intelligence, suggesting aerobic fitness could enhance cognitive abilities. This underscores the brain-health benefits of maintaining physical fitness through aerobic exercise.

This large-scale cohort study assessed how daily step counts and their intensity impact dementia risk in adults aged 40–79. Data from 78,430 participants wearing accelerometers revealed that walking up to 9,826 steps daily was linked to a 50% lower risk of developing dementia. Even modest step counts of 3,826 daily steps reduced dementia risk by 25%. Walking at a faster pace provided stronger protective effects than casual walking. These findings emphasize the role of regular physical activity in preventing cognitive decline and promoting long-term brain health.

This study explored how 10 minutes of moderate-intensity running impacts mood, executive function, and brain activity in young adults. Using a task that measures cognitive control (the Stroop task), researchers found improved reaction times and mood after running, compared to resting. Brain imaging revealed increased activity in the prefrontal cortex, a key area for decision-making and emotional regulation. These findings highlight running’s potential to simultaneously enhance cognitive performance and promote positive emotions, making it an accessible tool for mental and brain health.

This study investigated how physical activity and video gaming influence mental health and cognitive performance in over 1,000 participants. Regular exercise improved mental health, reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety, but did not enhance cognitive abilities like memory or reasoning. In contrast, frequent video gaming significantly boosted cognitive performance, particularly reasoning and short-term memory, but had no impact on mental health. The findings suggest that exercise and video gaming benefit different aspects of brain health and can complement one another.

This study examined how aerobic exercise impacts cognition and Alzheimer’s-related biomarkers in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Over six months, participants engaged in either aerobic exercise or stretching. Women in the aerobic group showed significant improvements in executive functions like multitasking and decision-making, alongside better glucose regulation and reduced cortisol levels. Men experienced smaller cognitive benefits but showed increases in growth factors linked to brain health. These results highlight aerobic exercise as a non-drug strategy to slow cognitive decline, especially in women at risk for Alzheimer’s disease, through mechanisms like improved metabolism and reduced stress hormones.

This paper reviews the effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive function and brain health across different populations. Studies show that physically active individuals have lower rates of cognitive decline and dementia. Aerobic exercise, particularly in older adults, enhances memory, executive function, and processing speed. It also influences brain structure, such as increasing hippocampal volume and improving functional connectivity. These effects are mediated by factors like improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced inflammation, and increased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).

This study examined how changes in walking habits over a decade influence cognitive health and brain structure in older adults. Using MRI and cognitive tests, researchers found that maintaining or increasing walking activity was associated with reduced hippocampal shrinkage, better preservation of gray matter and white matter microstructure, and slower cognitive decline. Importantly, long-term consistency in walking was more predictive of these benefits than baseline activity levels or short-term changes. This highlights walking's potential role in promoting brain health and mitigating age-related declines.

This review highlights how aerobic exercise influences the brain and promotes both behavioral and neural plasticity. It details changes like increased blood flow, neurogenesis (creation of new brain cells), and angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels), which enhance cognition, mood, and memory. Exercise also benefits individuals across all ages, from improving academic performance in children to slowing cognitive decline in older adults. The research connects physical fitness with brain resilience, showing its therapeutic potential for mental health issues like depression and anxiety, and even neurodegenerative diseases. These findings emphasize exercise as a tool for maintaining and improving brain health.

This study explored how different types of exercise affect adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) in male rats. Sustained aerobic exercise, like running, significantly enhanced AHN, which supports learning, memory, and stress resilience. In contrast, high-intensity interval training (HIT) and resistance training showed minimal or no benefits for AHN. Genetic predisposition played a role: rats bred for high aerobic response benefited more from exercise. These findings highlight that aerobic activities, especially sustained ones, can boost brain health by promoting new neuron growth in the hippocampus.

This study investigated how running influences brain health and learning in mice. It found that voluntary running significantly increased neurogenesis (the creation of new neurons) in the hippocampus, a key area for memory and learning. Running mice performed better on spatial memory tasks (like the Morris water maze) and showed enhanced synaptic plasticity, measured as long-term potentiation (LTP), in the hippocampus. These results suggest that running not only boosts memory and learning but also promotes brain plasticity by fostering the growth and integration of new neurons into neural circuits. These findings highlight the potential for physical activity to support cognitive health and prevent age-related decline.

This research explores how running impacts brain health, specifically neurogenesis in the hippocampus, a region vital for memory. It demonstrates that voluntary running increases the growth of new neurons, enhances synaptic plasticity, and improves memory and learning in both rodents and humans. Exercise triggers neurotransmitter changes, elevates growth factors like BDNF, and boosts neural connections in critical brain regions. These changes contribute to better spatial navigation, memory discrimination, and potentially delay age-related cognitive decline. The findings highlight the dynamic interaction between physical activity and brain adaptability.

This study explored how 10 minutes of walking impacts cognitive tasks and academic performance in different age groups. Elementary through college students showed significant improvement in tasks like sequential memory and feature detection. For high school students, low-achievers demonstrated substantial gains in mathematical problem-solving, particularly in higher-order skills like analysis, after walking. These results emphasize the cognitive benefits of brief physical activity, supporting its use to enhance focus and learning. Walking's simplicity and accessibility make it a valuable tool for improving brain health and countering sedentary lifestyles.

This review highlights the impact of aerobic exercise on brain structure, focusing on key regions like the hippocampus and motor cortex. Aerobic activity enhances neuroplasticity through mechanisms such as neurogenesis (growth of new neurons), angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels), and structural changes in gray and white matter. Regular exercise increases hippocampal volume, which is critical for memory and learning, and improves overall brain health. These effects have been observed across all ages and are particularly beneficial in mitigating age-related cognitive decline. The findings underscore the brain's adaptability to physical activity, with implications for promoting mental health and combating neurological diseases.

This study assessed how aerobic exercise impacts white matter health in older adults over six months. Participants engaged in walking, dancing, or active control exercises, with walking and dancing showing improved white matter integrity (T1w/T2w signal) compared to declines in the control group. Enhanced white matter integrity in late-myelinating areas, like the corpus callosum, correlated with improved episodic memory, suggesting neuroplasticity persists in aging brains. The findings indicate aerobic exercise can slow age-related brain decline, benefiting memory and overall cognitive health.